Colonial Constitutional Development

1773 to 1947. Two phases: Company rule to 1857, Crown rule after. The single thread running through every Act is centralisation — power drifting steadily from Bengal to India, from Company to Crown, from Britain to Indians.

Phase 1 — East India Company Rule (1773–1857)

Five major laws between 1757 and 1857 regulated the Company's functioning.

Regulating Act, 1773

The Act that started the process of centralisation in India.

• First Act passed by the British Parliament to control and regulate Company affairs in India.
• Governor of Bengal was made the Governor-General. Warren Hastings was the first Governor-General of Bengal.
• Governors of Bombay and Madras made subordinate to the Governor of Bengal.
• Governor-General given power to make rules and regulations; assisted by a Council of 4 members.
• Number of Directors in the Company fixed at 4. The Governor-General had to follow the Directors' orders.
• Revenue to be reported by the Court of Directors, the Company's governing body.
• A Supreme Court was established at Calcutta in 1774 — with a Chief Justice and 3 Assistant Judges.

Pitt's India Act, 1784

• Company territories called "British Possessions in India" for the first time.
• Established a joint government of British India run by Crown and Company — the government held ultimate power and authority.
• Court of Directors for commercial operations; a 6-member Board of Control for political affairs.
• Governor-General's Council reduced from 4 members to 3.
• Governors' Councils established in Bombay and Madras.

Charter Act, 1813

• Ended the monopoly of the East India Company over trade with India.
• Trade opened to all British citizens except tea trade and trade with China.

Charter Act, 1833

• Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India. Lord William Bentinck was the first.
• East India Company ended as a commercial body and became a purely administrative body.
• Governor-General given full control over revenue, civil and military.
• The final step in the process of centralisation that began with the Regulating Act of 1773.

Charter Act, 1853

• Civil Service Examination introduced — open competitive recruitment.
• Executive and legislative functions of the Governor-General separated for the first time.
• Added 6 new members to the Legislative Council; 4 appointed by the provincial governments of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and Agra.
• Governor-General's Legislative Council became known as the Central Legislative Council.
• It started functioning as a mini-Parliament, adopting British Parliament procedures.

Phase 2 — Rule under the British Crown (1857–1947)

Government of India Act, 1858

• Ended the rule of the East India Company; powers transferred to the British Crown.
• Secretary of State for India given the powers and duties of the former Court of Directors; controlled Indian administration through the Viceroy.
• Secretary of State assisted by the Council of India — 15 members, an advisory body.
• Governor-General of India was made the Viceroy of India. Lord Canning was the first Viceroy.

Indian Councils Act, 1861

• Indians nominated as non-official members to the Viceroy's Legislative Council for the first time.
• Legislative Councils established in Provinces and Centre.
• Legislative powers of Bombay and Madras restored.
• Legislative Councils started in Punjab, North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP) and Bengal.

Indian Councils Act, 1892

Indian Councils Act, 1909 — Morley-Minto Reforms

• For the first time, direct elections introduced for the Legislative Councils.
• Central Legislative Council renamed the Imperial Legislative Council.
• Communal representation introduced through separate electorates — seats reserved only for Muslims, polled only by Muslims.
• For the first time Indians appointed to the Viceroy's Executive Council. Satyendra Prasad Sinha was the law member.

Government of India Act, 1919 — Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

• Bicameralism introduced for the first time — at the Centre.
• Provincial and Central subjects separated.
• Dyarchy (dual governance) introduced in the Provincial subjects, split into Reserved and Transferred:
  • Transferred: agriculture, health, education, local government — under Ministers answerable to the Provincial Council.
  • Reserved: communications, foreign affairs, defence — under the Governor/Viceroy's control.
• Of 6 members in the Viceroy's Executive Council, 3 were Indians.
• Provided for establishment of the Public Service Commission in India for the first time.
• Communal representation extended to Christians, Anglo-Indians and Sikhs.
• Franchise limited to those with taxable income, property, and land revenue of ₹3,000.
• Provided for a statutory commission after 10 years to review the working of the government — this became the Simon Commission.

Government of India Act, 1935

The longest and last constitutional measure introduced by British India — the result of the Round Table Conferences and the Simon Commission report.

• Bicameralism introduced in 6 of 11 provinces: Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Assam, Bihar, United Provinces.
• Provincial legislatures enlarged.
• Powers divided into Federal List, Provincial List and Concurrent List.
• Provincial autonomy introduced by abolishing Dyarchy in the provinces.
• Provision for adopting Dyarchy at the Centre.
• Provision for a Federal Court — established in 1937.
• Provision for an All India Federation of Provinces and Princely States.
• Due to its length, it was divided into 2 separate Acts.

Making of the Constitution

Idea in 1934, Assembly in 1946, signed in 1950. Four numbers carry most of the marks: 389 → 299 seats, 2 years 11 months 18 days, 11 sessions, 284 signatures.

The demand, step by step

Cabinet Mission, 1946

Composition of the Constituent Assembly

• Total seats: 389 — 296 from British India and 93 from Princely States.
• Of the 296: 292 elected from Governors' Provinces + 4 from Chief Commissioners' Provinces.
• British provinces divided into three communities: Muslim, Sikh, and General. Each community's representatives were elected by members of that community.
• Method: proportional representation with single transferable vote; roughly 1 seat per 10 lakh people.
• Princely states' representatives were nominated by the heads of the princely states.
• Elections held July 1946. Congress won 208 seats, Muslim League 73, Independents 15.
• After partition the number fell to 299.

The Assembly at work

Committees of the Constituent Assembly

Drafting Committee

• Set up 29 August 1947. Chairman: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (called the "Modern Manu").
• 7 members (6 + chairman).
• It took 141 days across 11 sittings.

Enactment and enforcement

• On 26 November 1949 the motion on the Draft Constitution was approved, gaining the signatures of the members and the President.
• The Preamble was enacted after the rest of the Constitution.
• Adopted with a Preamble, 395 Articles and 8 Schedules after three readings of the draft.
• 16 Articles came into effect on 26 November 1949: Articles 5–9, and Articles 379, 380, 388, 392, 393 — covering citizenship, elections, provisional parliament.
• The remaining Articles came into effect on 26 January 1950, Republic Day.
• On that date the Indian Independence Act 1947 and the Government of India Act 1935 were repealed.
• Today the Constitution has 448 Articles, 25 Parts and 12 Schedules.

Women in the Constituent Assembly

15 women were among the 284 who signed. Rajkumari Amrit Kaur was the first woman in independent India appointed to the Cabinet, as Health Minister. She founded the Indian Council for Child Welfare and established AIIMS and Lady Irwin College in Delhi.

First Cabinet of independent India

Additional exam-tested facts

The Preamble

Adopted last, amended once, not enforceable — and yet the most quoted forty lines in Indian law. Four descriptions by four men, three ideals from France, one amendment in 1976.

Core facts

• An introductory statement outlining the basic features and objectives of the Constitution.
• Based on the Objectives Resolution, presented by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946.
• Adopted on 26 November 1949 along with the Constitution — and enacted after the rest of it.
• Begins with "We, the people of India" — signifying the Constitution is made by the people and for the people.
• The people of India are the source of power under the Constitution.
• The Preamble is not justiciable — it cannot be enforced in a court of law.

What four men called it

Where the Preamble came from

• The idea/provision of having a Preamble — from the Constitution of the United States.
• The language and wording of the Preamble — from the Constitution of Australia.
• The ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity — from the French Revolution / Constitution of France.

The 42nd Amendment, 1976

• The Preamble has been amended only once, by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
• Three words added: Socialist, Secular, and Integrity.
• The 42nd Amendment is known as the "Mini-Constitution".
• President at the time: Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed. Prime Minister: Indira Gandhi. Passed during the Emergency (1975–77).

Every term, defined

The Preamble in court

Parts & Schedules

Originally 8 Schedules, now 12. Originally 22 Parts, now 25. The four added Schedules all came from four different amendments — and that pattern is what gets tested.

The 12 Schedules

7th Schedule — the three Lists

8th Schedule — languages

• 22 languages today; originally 14.
• Part XVII deals with official languages, Articles 343 to 351.
• As per the Constitution, India has NO national language.

9th and 10th Schedules

The 25 Parts

Borrowed Features

Eleven sources. The trick is not memorising the list but knowing which country owns each contested feature — because SSC only ever asks about the overlaps.

Union & Its Territory

Articles 1–4. Three articles, three verbs: Article 1 names, Article 2 admits, Article 3 alters. Get the verbs right and the article numbers follow.

At Independence

• India and Pakistan were created by the Indian Independence Act, 1947.
• There were 552 princely states, of which 549 joined India.
• Hyderabad, Junagadh and Kashmir refused to join.
  • Hyderabad — merged by police action (Operation Polo, September 1948).
  • Junagadh — included through plebiscite.
  • Kashmir — through Instrument of Accession (accession letter).

The original four-part classification

• Part A — states formerly under a Governor in British India.
• Part B — states with imperial rule and a state legislature (former princely states).
• Part C — states ruled by a Chief Commissioner of British India.
• Part D — the Andaman and Nicobar Islands alone.

Articles 1–4

State Reorganisation

State formation timeline

Article 371 — special provisions

States created after 1956

Following the reorganisation of Jammu and Kashmir in 2019, the count settled at 28 states and 8 Union Territories.

Article 370 and Jammu & Kashmir

• Under Article 370, Jammu and Kashmir had its own Constitution, a separate flag, and autonomy in decision-making except in defence, foreign affairs, finance and communications.
• It was abrogated in 2019 by a Presidential Order issued under Article 370(3) — not by an ordinance and not by a fresh constitutional amendment.
• The state was reorganised into two Union Territories. R. K. Mathur was the first Lieutenant Governor of Ladakh.

Citizenship

Articles 5–11, Part II. Five ways in, three ways out, and one date range that decides everything: 1950 → 1987 → 2004.

Core facts

• Citizenship is the status of a person recognised under law as a legal member of a sovereign state.
• The provision of single citizenship was taken from the British Constitution.
• Articles 5–11 deal with citizenship; Part II of the Constitution.
• Parliament has the power to regulate the right of citizenship by law.
• The Home Ministry is the highest authority to decide on matters of citizenship.
• The Citizenship Act was first passed in 1955.

Five ways to acquire citizenship

1. By Birth — the three date windows

Children of foreign diplomats posted in India and enemy aliens cannot acquire Indian citizenship by birth.

2. By Descent

A person born outside India is a citizen by descent if either parent is an Indian citizen, provided the birth is registered at an Indian Mission/Post abroad within one year of the birth.

3. By Registration

For persons who qualify under specified categories and apply to be registered as citizens.

4. By Naturalisation

If a person is ordinarily resident of India for 12 years, including a continuous period of 1 year immediately preceding the date of application.

5. By Incorporation of Territory

When a new territory becomes part of India, the Government of India specifies who becomes a citizen.

Three ways to lose citizenship

Single vs dual citizenship

• India gives single citizenship — all people, irrespective of the state or territory they reside in, are citizens of the country.
• USA and Switzerland adopted double citizenship — citizenship of the country plus of the constituent state where one resides.
• Dual citizenship is a feature of a federal government.

Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

• Provides a fast-track to Indian citizenship for specified persecuted religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
• The Citizenship (Amendment) Rules, 2024 operationalised it. They exclude applicants from Inner Line Permit (ILP) regions and Sixth Schedule areas.
• The officer for registering migrants as citizens is appointed by the Central Government.

Fundamental Rights

Articles 12–35, Part III. Started as seven rights, now six — the missing one is the whole story of Article 31 and the 44th Amendment.

Core facts

• Contained in Part III, known as the Magna Carta of the Indian Constitution because it strives for the all-round development of citizens.
• The concept of fundamental rights first came into being in the Magna Carta of England.
• The provision of Fundamental Rights was taken from the US Constitution.
• They are justiciable — a person can move the courts for enforcement when they are violated.
• They are protected and guaranteed by the Constitution and protect citizens from state exploitation.
• A person can move directly to the Supreme Court (Art 32) and the High Court (Art 226).
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar called Part III the "most enlightened part" of the Constitution.

Article 12 and 13 — the gatekeepers

• Article 12 — defines "the State": Government and Legislature of the Union and of each state, local and other authorities.
• Article 13 — declares that all laws inconsistent with or in derogation of Fundamental Rights shall be void. This is the basis of judicial review.

The seventh right that vanished

Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)

Article 14 — Equality before law

• No person shall be denied equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.
• "Equality before law" is an element of the concept of Rule of Law, propounded by A. V. Dicey (UK).

Exceptions:

1. The President and Governors are not answerable to any court for the exercise of their powers; no civil or criminal proceedings can occur against them during their term.
2. No MP or member of a State Legislature is liable to court proceedings for anything said or any vote given in the House or a committee.
3. Foreign sovereigns, ambassadors and diplomats enjoy immunity from criminal and civil proceedings.

Article 15 — Prohibition of discrimination

• 15(1) No citizen shall be discriminated against on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
• 15(2) No citizen shall be prohibited from entering shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment, or from using public wells, tanks, roads.
• 15(3) Nothing prevents the State from making special provision for women and children.
• 15(4) Nothing prevents special provision for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, SCs and STs.
• Article 15 prohibits discrimination both by the State and private individuals.

Article 16 — Equality of opportunity in public employment

• 16(1) Equality of opportunity in matters of employment or appointment to any post under the State.
• 16(2) No citizen shall be ineligible or discriminated against on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence.
• 16(4) Nothing prevents the State from making provision for reservation of appointments or posts for any backward class not adequately represented.
• 16(4A) Provision for reservation in promotion for SCs and STs who are under-represented.
• 16(5) Reservation in promotion.
• On 28 June 2021 the Supreme Court held that persons with disabilities have a right to reservation in promotion under Article 16(4), in State of Kerala v. Leesamma Joseph.

EWS reservation

• 103rd Constitutional Amendment, 2019, came into force 14 January 2019.
• Amends Articles 15 and 16; provides 10 percent reservation for economically weaker sections among upper castes in government jobs.
• Eligibility: annual family income less than ₹8 lakh; agricultural land less than 5 acres; residential flat less than 1000 sq ft; residential plot less than 100 sq yards in a notified municipality or below 200 sq yards in a non-notified municipality; not covered under any other reservation.

Article 17 — Abolition of Untouchability

• Abolishes untouchability and forbids its practice in any form. Enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability is an offence punishable by law.
• Supporting laws: Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

Article 18 — Abolition of Titles

1. Prohibits the State from conferring any title on any citizen or foreigner (except military or academic distinction).
2. Prohibits a citizen of India from accepting any title from any foreign state.
3. A foreigner holding an office of profit under the state cannot accept any title from a foreign state without the President's consent.
4. No citizen or foreigner holding any office of profit can accept any present, emolument or office from a foreign state without the President's consent.

• Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan cannot be used as titles and therefore do not fall within the constitutional prohibition.
• Awards were constituted in 1954. In 1977 the Janata Party government suspended them; in 1980 they were revived.

Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22)

Article 19 — the six freedoms

Article 20 — Protection in respect of conviction for offences

Article 21 — Protection of Life and Personal Liberty

• No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.
• By the 44th Amendment, 1978, Article 21 cannot be suspended even during an Emergency. It is known as the Backbone of the Constitution.
• Right to Life includes: Right to Privacy, Marriage, Food, Health, Water, enjoyment of pollution-free water and air, Sleep, travel abroad, and more.
• KA Najeeb vs Union of India — dealt with violation of rights under Article 21; the Supreme Court dealt with granting bail under the stringent provisions of the UAPA. Najeeb, one of the accused in the 2008 Bengaluru serial blasts, was in jail for over 11 years without completion of his trial.

Article 21A — Right to Education

• The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children aged six to fourteen years.
• Inserted by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002.
• Right to elementary education is available to foreigners as well.

Article 22 — Protection against arrest and detention

• Detention is of two types: punitive and preventive. Punitive detention punishes a person after trial and conviction.
• Every arrested person has the right to be presented before a Magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
• Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused.
• The Supreme Court's procedural requirements for arrest, detention and interrogation are the D. K. Basu guidelines.
• Preventive detention: a person can be arrested out of apprehension that he is likely to engage in unlawful activity, and imprisoned without following normal procedure. Preventive detention can be extended only for three months without the approval of an Advisory Board.

Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24)

• Article 23 — Prohibition of human trafficking and forced labour. The State may impose compulsory service for public purposes, but without discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste or class.
• Article 24 — Forbids employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs such as factories and mines. Its aim is to protect the health and strength of children.

Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28)

Article 25

Provides Freedom of Conscience, Profession, Practice and Propagation. All persons have freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practise and propagate religion. Reasonable restrictions can be imposed on the basis of public order, morality and health.

Article 26

Every religious denomination has freedom to manage religious affairs, subject to public order, morality and health:

1. Establishment of institutions for religious purposes
2. Managing its own religious affairs
3. Acquisition and management of ownership of movable and immovable property
4. Administering such property in accordance with law

Article 27

No person shall be compelled to pay tax for the promotion of any particular religion. It also prohibits the state from spending money collected through taxes for the promotion of any religion. Reflects the principle of secularism.

Article 28

• 28(1) — No religious instruction shall be imparted in any educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds.
• 28(1) does not apply to institutions administered by the State but established under a trust requiring religious instruction.

Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30)

• Article 29 — Protection of interests of minorities.
  1. Any section of citizens having a distinct language, script or culture has the right to conserve it.
  2. No citizen shall be denied admission into any State-maintained or State-aided educational institution on grounds only of religion, race, caste or language.
• Article 30 — Right of minorities (linguistic as well as religious) to establish and administer educational institutions.

Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)

• Dr. Ambedkar called Article 32 the "Heart and Soul of the Constitution".
• If any Fundamental Right is violated, a citizen can go directly to the Supreme Court under Article 32, or to the High Court under Article 226.
• In I. R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu, 2007, Article 32 was held to be part of the basic structure of the Constitution.

The five writs

Articles 33, 34, 35

The Golden Triangle

Further tested points

Directive Principles of State Policy

Articles 36–51, Part IV. Borrowed from Ireland, non-justiciable, and grouped into three families that the Constitution itself never named — Socialist, Gandhian, Liberal-Intellectual.

Core facts

• Adopted from the Constitution of Ireland.
• Contained in Part IV, Articles 36–51.
• They justify the concept of a welfare state and seek to establish economic and social democracy.
• K. C. Wheare said the DPSPs are the "manifesto of the aims and aspirations of the Constituent Assembly".
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar described them as the "novel features" of the Constitution.
• DPSPs embody socio-economic ideals: Right to work, Right to education, early childhood care, promotion of cooperative societies, improvement of public health.
• They are an "instrument of instructions" — a phrase drawn from the Government of India Act, 1935.
• The Constitution does not originally classify DPSPs; the three-way classification is by content and direction.

Article 36 and 37

• Article 36 — Definition of "the State" for the purposes of DPSPs.
• Article 37 — The provisions of the Directive Principles cannot be enforced by any court. They are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of the country, and it is the duty of the State to implement them by making laws.

The three classifications

Every DPSP article

DPSPs added by amendment

Fundamental Rights vs DPSP

Fundamental Duties

Article 51-A, Part IV-A. Ten originally, eleven now. One committee, one emergency, one amendment — and then a single addition twenty-six years later.

Core facts

• The idea of Fundamental Duties is inspired by the Constitution of Russia (erstwhile USSR).
• They were not part of the original Constitution at the time of its commencement on 26 January 1950.
• Introduced by the 42nd Amendment, 1976, during the Emergency (1975–77) under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
• Originally 10 in number. One more was added by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002, under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
• All eleven duties are listed in Article 51-A — the sole Article in Part IV-A.
• Added on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee.
• They are not legally binding on citizens and the courts cannot enforce them.
• Yet some — such as abiding by the Constitution and respecting the National Flag and National Anthem — are enforceable through separate laws.
• Not applicable to foreigners — Fundamental Duties apply only to citizens.

Swaran Singh Committee

The eleven duties

Union Executive

Articles 52–78, Part V. The President is the de jure head, the PM is the de facto head. Every power the President "has", the Council of Ministers actually exercises.

Part V at a glance

The President

• The first citizen of the country and the head of the Republic of India.
• De jure head / Titular head / Constitutional head — the Prime Minister is the de facto head.
• India is a republic: the head of state is elected, not hereditary.
• Article 52 — there shall be a President of India.
• Article 53 — the President is the head of the Union Executive; exercises power himself or through subordinate officers.
• Supreme Commander of the defence forces. As Commander-in-Chief he takes the salute of the regiments during the Republic Day march-past.
• The President of India has the same function as the Queen (monarch) of Britain.
• The President's salary is paid from the Consolidated Fund of India — currently ₹5 lakh per month.

Election of the President

• Elected by proportional representation using the single transferable vote, by secret ballot (Art 54, 55).
• The Electoral College consists of:
  1. The elected MPs (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha)
  2. The elected MLAs of the states
  3. The elected MLAs of the NCT of Delhi (added by the 70th Amendment Act, 1992, with effect from 1 June 1995) and of the UT of Puducherry
• Nominated members of Parliament and legislative assemblies, and members of Legislative Councils, do NOT participate in the presidential election.
• However, nominated members of either House CAN participate in the impeachment of the President, even though they cannot vote in his election.
• All doubts and disputes arising out of presidential elections are decided by the Supreme Court, whose decision is final (Art 71(1)).
• Elections are monitored and conducted by the Election Commission of India.
• Nomination must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 as seconders.
• Security deposit: ₹15,000.

Qualifications, oath and term

1. Must be a citizen of India.
2. Must have completed 35 years of age (Art 58).
3. Must be eligible for election as a member of the Lok Sabha.
4. Must not hold any office of profit under the Union, State, local or other public authority.

• The President shall not be a member of either House of Parliament or of any Legislature. If such a member is elected, he is deemed to have vacated that seat.
• Oath (Art 60) administered by the Chief Justice of India, or in his absence the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court available.
• Emoluments, allowances and privileges are determined by Parliament and cannot be diminished during his term.

Articles 52–72 in one table

Impeachment — Article 61

• Can be initiated in either House.
• A 14-day prior notice must be given to the President.
• The resolution must be signed by at least one-fourth of the members of that House.
• It must be passed by a special majority — two-thirds of the total membership — in both Houses.
• Ground: violation of the Constitution.

Presidents of India

The Vice President

• Second highest post in the country after the President.
• The office is modelled on the Vice President of the United States.
• Article 63 — there shall be a Vice President of India.
• Article 64 — the VP is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
• Article 65 — when the VP acts as President (on the President's death, resignation, removal or absence), he shall not perform the duties of Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
• Article 66 — election of the Vice President. Elected by an electoral college consisting of members of BOTH Houses of Parliament — elected AND nominated members.
• Article 66(2) — the VP shall not be a member of the Rajya Sabha.
• Article 67 — term of 5 years from the date he assumes office. May resign by writing to the President.
• Article 68 — time of holding election to fill a vacancy: within 60 days.
• Article 69 — oath administered by the President, or in his absence any person appointed by him.
• Article 70 — discharge of the President's functions in other contingencies.
• Article 71(1) — matters relating to the election of a President or Vice President are decided by the Supreme Court, whose decision is final.

Eligibility and removal

• Must be a citizen of India, have completed 35 years of age, and be qualified to be elected to the Rajya Sabha.
• Salary: ₹4 lakh per month for the post of Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. Pension: 50% of salary.
• Security deposit for VP election: ₹15,000 (same as for President).
• Removal (Art 67(b)): by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an effective majority (more than half of the total number of members), agreed to by the Lok Sabha by a simple majority (of members present and voting).
• The removal resolution can be introduced only in the Rajya Sabha.
• A 14 days' notice is mandatory before proposing the resolution.
• Election to fill a vacancy must be held within 60 days of the expiry of the outgoing VP's term.

Vice Presidents of India

Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

• The PM and Council of Ministers run the Parliamentary system — also called the Cabinet system, Responsible government, or Prime Minister model — at the national level.
• The Council of Ministers is the "keystone of the cabinet arch".
• Article 74(1) — there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at its head to aid and advise the President.
• Article 74(2) — no one can inquire about the advice given to the President.
• Article 75(1) — the PM is appointed by the President; other ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the PM.
• Article 75(1A) — the total number of ministers including the PM shall not exceed 15% of the total members of the Lok Sabha. Inserted by the 91st Amendment, 2003.
• Article 75(1)(b) — someone disqualified on grounds of defection can never be a minister. (91st Amendment.)
• Article 75(2) — ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President.
• Article 75(3) — the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
• Article 75(4) — oath of cabinet ministers, administered by the President.
• Article 75(5) — a Minister who is not a member of either House for any continuous period of six months shall cease to be a Minister.
• The PM submits his resignation letter to the President.
• The word "cabinet" appears in the Constitution only in clause 3 of Article 352 — added by the 44th Amendment.
• Article 77 — Conduct of Business; all executive action is taken in the name of the President.
• Article 78 — duties of the PM regarding furnishing information to the President: informing him of administrative and legislative decisions of the Union, and any information he may ask for. This defines the relationship between the PM and the President.

Attorney General of India

• Article 76 provides for the Attorney General of India.
• Appointed by the President of India.
• The government's chief legal advisor and the first law officer of India.
• 76(1) — the President appoints a person qualified to be a Judge of the Supreme Court.
• 76(2) — duty to advise the Government of India on legal matters directed by the President.
• 76(3) — has jurisdiction in all courts within the territory of India.
• 76(4) — holds office during the pleasure of the President.

Qualifications

• Citizen of India
• 5 years' experience as a High Court Judge, OR
• 10 years' experience as an advocate in a High Court, OR
• In the President's opinion, a qualified knowledge of judicial matters

Powers and limits

• Right of audience in all courts of India.
• Right to speak and participate in the proceedings of both Houses of Parliament — but no right to vote, as he is not a member of either House.
• His work is not fixed by the Constitution.
• No arrangement has been made in the Constitution regarding his removal.
• M. C. Setalvad was the first Attorney General of India and also the first Chairman of the Law Commission after independence.
• R. Venkataramani is the current Attorney General of India.

Appointment and removal — one table

Further tested points

Parliament

Articles 79–122, Part V. Three parts, two Houses, one permanent chamber. The numbers to lock: 550 / 250, 25 / 30 years, 84 SC / 47 ST.

Core facts

• Three organs of government: Legislature, Executive, Judiciary.
• Parliament is the national legislature of India, called the "temple of democracy".
• The parliamentary system is based on the British model.
• Articles 79 to 122 in Part V deal with the formation, structure, procedure, privileges and powers of Parliament.
• Parliament has three parts: the President, the Rajya Sabha (Art 80) and the Lok Sabha (Art 81).
• The Rajya Sabha is the Upper House; the Lok Sabha is the Lower House.
• Rajya Sabha represents the States and Union Territories; Lok Sabha members are directly elected by the people.
• The Rajya Sabha is presided over by the Vice President; the Lok Sabha by the Speaker.
• In April 1952 the first elected Parliament with two Houses came into being.

Rajya Sabha — Council of States

• Article 80 deals with its composition.
• Maximum strength: 250. Of these, 238 are indirectly elected by the state legislatures (and UT legislatures).
• Article 80(3) — the President nominates 12 members from persons with special knowledge or experience in Art, Literature, Science, Social Service and Cooperatives.
• First constituted in 1952 (13 May 1952).
• It is a permanent house and can never be dissolved.
• One-third of its members retire every two years; the term of a member is 6 years.
• Minimum age to become a member: 30 years.
• The Fourth Schedule provides for allocation of Rajya Sabha seats among the states and UTs.
• Uttar Pradesh has the maximum number of Rajya Sabha seats: 31.
• The Rajya Sabha elects a Deputy Chairman from among its members.

Lok Sabha — House of the People

• Article 81 deals with its composition.
• Maximum strength: 550 — 530 from the states and a maximum of 20 from the Union Territories.
• The representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha was abolished by the 104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019.
• Seats are allotted to states on the basis of population.
• State-wise allocation of seats is based on the 1971 census; division of each state into territorial constituencies is based on the 2001 census.
• Per the 84th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2001, this will remain in place until the first census data published after 2026.
• Minimum age to become a Lok Sabha member: 25 years.
• Uttar Pradesh has the largest number of Lok Sabha members: 80. Then Maharashtra (48) and West Bengal (42).
• Article 330 — at present 84 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and 47 for Scheduled Tribes. There is no women's reservation in force; a bill for 33% reservation was not passed by the Lok Sabha in 2010.
• The first election to the Lok Sabha was held from October 1951 to February 1952.
• Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar was the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
• The first woman Speaker was Meira Kumar (2009–14). The present Speaker is Om Birla.
• The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

Key Parliament articles

Passage of bills

Ordinary Bill — Article 107

• Can be introduced in either House; passed by simple majority.
• Goes to the second House, which can pass, amend, or reject it.
• If the second House rejects it or a deadlock arises, a joint sitting can be called (Art 108).
• After both Houses pass it, it goes to the President, who can assent, return it for reconsideration, or withhold assent.

Money Bill — Articles 109 and 110

• Introduced only in the Lok Sabha.
• Requires the prior assent of the President.
• The Rajya Sabha can only make recommendations — it cannot reject or amend a Money Bill — and must return it within 14 days.
• Whether a bill is a Money Bill or not is decided by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
• The President cannot return a Money Bill; he can only give assent or withhold it.
• No joint sitting is possible for a Money Bill.

Veto powers of the President

Important motions

In a parliamentary democracy, the approval of the presiding officer is mandatory for discussing any matter of public importance. In the Lok Sabha this right lies with the Speaker/Deputy Speaker; in the Rajya Sabha with the Chairman/Deputy Chairman.

Parliamentary Committees

• A committee is a Parliamentary Committee if it is appointed or elected by the House or nominated by the Speaker or the Chairman.
• They work on the instructions of the Speaker/Chairman and submit their reports to the House.
• Two types: Standing Committees (permanent, fixed tenure) and Ad-hoc Committees (specific purpose, cease to exist on submitting a report).
• Ad-hoc committees include Advisory Committees (Select and Joint Committees on Bills) and Inquiry Committees (e.g. Committee on the 2G Scam, Joint Committee on the Bofors Contract).
• Standing Committees are of three kinds: Financial Standing Committees (FSC), Department Related Standing Committees (DRSC), and Other Standing Committees (OSC).

Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC)

• A type of ad-hoc parliamentary committee.
• Headed by a member chosen by the government, although appointed by the Speaker.
• The first JPC was formed in August 1987 to investigate the Bofors scandal.
• Others: joint committees on the 2G spectrum and the stock market scam. Up to 2014, six JPCs had been constituted.

The three Financial Committees

• A minister cannot be a member of any of these three committees.
• PAC is the oldest parliamentary committee in India, known as the "twin sister of the Estimates Committee".
• The CAG is referred to as the "friend, philosopher and guide" of the PAC.
• The Committee on Public Undertakings examines bodies such as Damodar Valley Corporation, Air India, Life Insurance Corporation, Food Corporation of India.
• PAC membership: members are elected according to the number of seats each party holds in Parliament.

Other committees

Lok Sabha strength — 550 or 552?

Procedural terms

Further tested points

State Government

Articles 152–237, Part VI. The state mirrors the Centre almost exactly — and there is an arithmetic trick that converts one to the other.

Part VI structure

• The system of governance in the states is essentially the same as at the Centre.
• The State Legislature is made up of the Governor and the Legislative Assembly; in some states there is also a Legislative Council — 6 states have one.
• Article 152 — "State" does not include Jammu and Kashmir (as originally worded).

The Governor

• Article 153 — there is a Governor for each state. From the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1956, the same person can be appointed Governor of two or more states.
• Article 154 — the executive power of the state is vested in the Governor.
• Article 155 — the Governor is appointed by the President of India.
• Article 156:
  • 156(1) — holds office during the pleasure of the President.
  • 156(2) — can resign by writing to the President.
  • 156(3) — holds office for a term of 5 years. Even after ceasing to hold office, he continues until his successor assumes office.
• Article 157 — qualifications: must be a citizen of India and have completed 35 years of age. Only 2 qualifications exist.
• Article 158 — conditions of the office:
  • Cannot be a member of either House of Parliament or of any House of the Legislature.
  • Shall not hold any other office of profit.
  • Entitled to emoluments and allowances included in the Second Schedule.
  • Emoluments cannot be reduced during his term.
  • Salary and allowances are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State.
• Article 159 — oath taken before the Chief Justice of the High Court exercising jurisdiction in that state, or in his absence the senior-most judge of that Court.
• Article 160 — the President may make provision for the Governor's functions in certain circumstances.
• Article 161 — pardoning power: grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment, or suspend, remit or commute a sentence.
• Article 200 — power to give assent to a bill, withhold assent, or return a bill for reconsideration.
• Article 213 — power to promulgate ordinances when the State Legislature is not in session. He can withdraw the ordinance at any time.
• Article 243-I — the Governor shall constitute a State Finance Commission every 5 years.
• Sarojini Naidu was the first woman Governor of India — Governor of Uttar Pradesh (erstwhile United Province) from 15 August 1947 to March 1949.

Council of Ministers in the State

• Article 163 — there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister at the head to aid and advise the Governor.
• Article 164 — appointment and other conditions of Ministers:
  • 164(1) — the Governor appoints the Chief Minister; other Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the CM.
  • 164(2) — the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State.
  • 164(3) — the Governor administers the oath of office and secrecy to every minister, in the form of the Third Schedule.
  • 164(4) — a Minister who is not a member of the State Legislature for any continuous period of six months shall cease to be a Minister.
• Article 165 — the Advocate General for the State: the highest law officer in the state, advises the state government on legal matters. Holds office during the pleasure of the Governor.
• Article 166 — Conduct of Business of the Government of a State.
• Article 167 — duty of the Chief Minister to furnish information to the Governor: conveying all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to administration and legislation, and any information the Governor asks for. Any matter on which a Minister has taken a decision but which the Council has not considered shall, if the Governor requires, be placed before the Council.
• The 91st Amendment, 2003 inserted Clause 1(A) into Article 75, capping the Council of Ministers at 15% of the Lok Sabha or the respective State Legislature. For Delhi the limit is 10%.

Chief Minister

• The head of the state government, similar to the Prime Minister at the Centre.
• Appointed by the Governor under Article 164.
• The Governor cannot appoint anyone at random — the leader of the party with the majority in the assembly elections is appointed Chief Minister.

Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)

• Articles 168–212 under Part VI describe the State Legislature.
• Article 168 — the State Legislature consists of the Governor, the Legislative Assembly, and (in some states) the Legislative Council.
• Tenure: 5 years, but the Governor holds the authority to dissolve it before the term concludes.
• Article 170 — the Legislative Assembly of every State shall consist of not more than 500 and not less than 60 members, chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies.
• Exceptions to the minimum of 60: Sikkim (32 seats), Mizoram (40) and Goa (40).
• The largest assembly is Uttar Pradesh, with 403 seats.
• Article 172 — every Legislative Assembly continues for a term of 5 years unless sooner dissolved.

Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad)

• Article 169 — provides for the abolition and creation of Legislative Councils. Parliament may by law create or abolish a Legislative Council in any state, by simple majority.
• This requires the Legislative Assembly of the state to first pass a resolution by a majority of the total membership and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting.
• Article 171 — composition of the Legislative Councils.
• Article 172(2) — Legislative Councils are NOT subject to dissolution.
• The total membership of a Legislative Council shall not exceed one-third of the total membership of the Legislative Assembly of that State — and shall not be less than 40 in any case.
• Tenure of members: 6 years; one-third retire every second year.

How the Legislative Council is composed

The courts generally do not interfere with these discretionary powers unless there is a clear violation of the Constitution.

Important State Legislature articles

Further tested points

The Judiciary

Supreme Court 124–147, High Courts 214–231, Subordinate Courts 233–237. India has an integrated judiciary — one pyramid, not two parallel systems as in the USA.

Supreme Court — the basics

• India has an integrated judicial system: Supreme Court, then High Courts, then Subordinate Courts.
• The Supreme Court of India was established on 26 January 1950; its inaugural session was 28 January 1950.
• Articles 124–147, Chapter 4 under Part V.
• It is the highest judicial court and the final court of appeal in the country.

Article 124 — establishment and composition

• 124(1) — there shall be a Supreme Court of India consisting of the Chief Justice of India and not more than 7 other Judges (as originally enacted).
• At present the total strength is 34 including the Chief Justice (33 + 1).
• 124(2) — judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President.
• The Constitution does not specify a minimum age to be a judge of the Supreme Court.
• Parliament can increase the number of judges in the Supreme Court.

Qualifications — Article 124(3)

• Citizen of India; and
• Has served as a Judge of a High Court, or of two or more High Courts, continuously for at least 5 years; OR
• Has been an advocate of a High Court continuously for 10 years; OR
• In the opinion of the President, is a distinguished jurist with a high level of legal knowledge.

Removal — Article 124(4)

• A judge shall not be removed except on the ground of proven misbehaviour or incapacity.
• A motion is made by each House of Parliament supported by a majority of its total membership and not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting — a special majority.
• The resolution is then placed before the President in the same session.

Appointment of judges

• Judges are appointed by the President.
• The Chief Justice is appointed by the President after consulting such judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts as the President considers necessary.
• "Consultation" of the Chief Justice normally means consultation of the collegium of the four other senior-most judges of the Supreme Court along with the Chief Justice.
• The Supreme Court adopted the collegium system in 1993 for the appointment and transfer of judges.

Oath and tenure

• A judge takes an oath before the President or a person appointed by him.
• The tenure of Supreme Court judges was not fixed — they hold office till the age of 65 years (Art 124(2)).
• A judge can submit a written resignation to the President.
• A judge can be removed from office by the President on the recommendation of Parliament.

Supreme Court articles 125–147

High Court

• Part VI, Articles 214–231.
• The first High Court in India was the Calcutta High Court.
• Total High Courts in India: 25.
• Article 214 — there shall be a High Court for each state in India.
• Article 215 — every High Court shall be a court of record, with power to punish for contempt of itself.
• Article 216 — every High Court shall consist of a Chief Justice and such other Judges as the President may from time to time deem it necessary to appoint.
• Article 231 — allows Parliament to establish a common High Court for two or more States, or for a State and a Union Territory.

Article 217 — appointment and conditions

• Judges of the High Court are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal, after consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the State.
• High Court judges remain in office only till the age of 62 years.
• 217(2) — Qualifications: citizen of India; advocate of a High Court (or two or more) continuously for at least 10 years; or has held judicial office for at least 10 years.
• 217(3) — any question about a judge's age is decided by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, and the President's decision is final.
• 217(a) — a judge may resign by writing to the President.
• A High Court judge can be removed by order of the President, only on a resolution passed by each House of Parliament in the same session with a special majority, on the ground of proven misconduct or incompetence — the same procedure as for Supreme Court judges.

Other High Court articles

Salaries and pensions

Jurisdiction and powers of the High Court

Original jurisdiction

Applicants can go directly to the High Court, not by way of appeal:

• Disputes relating to Members of Parliament and the State Legislative Assembly
• Matters relating to marriage, law, admiralty, divorce, contempt of court
• Enforcement of fundamental rights (the Supreme Court also has this power)
• Cases transferred from other courts involving a question of law

Writ jurisdiction

• Article 226 empowers High Courts to issue writs — Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto, Certiorari.
• The Supreme Court can issue writs only to protect fundamental rights; the High Court can also issue writs to enforce statutory rights apart from fundamental rights.
• In 1997, in the Chandra Kumar case, the Supreme Court ruled that the writ jurisdiction of the High Court and the Supreme Court is part of the basic structure of the Constitution — nothing can be added or subtracted from it even through a constitutional amendment.

Appellate jurisdiction

• The High Court is the primary court of appeal, hearing appeals against judgements of subordinate courts within its territory.
• Two categories: civil jurisdiction and criminal jurisdiction.
• Civil: orders and judgements of district courts, additional district courts and other subordinate courts.
• Criminal: judgements of sessions courts and additional sessions courts, involving imprisonment for more than 7 years, and confirmation of any death sentence awarded by a sessions court before execution.

High Courts and their jurisdiction

Leila Seth was the first woman judge of the Delhi High Court and the first woman to become Chief Justice of a state High Court.

Subordinate Courts

• Under a High Court there is a hierarchy of subordinate courts — district courts and other lower courts.
• Chapter 6 of Part VI, Articles 233 to 237.
• Article 233 — appointment of District Judges is made by the Governor of that State in consultation with the High Court exercising jurisdiction in relation to that State.
• A person is eligible to be appointed a District Judge only if he has been an advocate for at least 7 years and has been recommended by the High Court.
• Article 235 — the High Court exercises control over the subordinate courts.
• The District Judge is the highest judicial authority at the district level. He acts as District Judge for civil cases and Sessions Judge for criminal cases.

Further Supreme Court and High Court articles

Local Government

Part IX (243–243O) and Part IX-A (243P–243ZG). Two amendments in the same year, two Schedules, two subject-counts: 73rd → 11th Schedule → 29 subjects and 74th → 12th Schedule → 18 subjects.

The road to constitutional status

The three tiers

Every article from 243 to 243O

Municipalities — 74th Amendment

• Part IX-A, Articles 243P to 243ZG, inserted by the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992.
• Covers the rights, authority and responsibility of municipalities.
• 12th Schedule — 18 subjects related to urban local bodies.

Cooperative Societies — 97th Amendment

• Part IX-B, Articles 243ZH to 243ZT.
• Inserted by the 97th Amendment Act, 2011.
• Also added Article 43-B to the DPSPs — promotion of cooperative societies.

Emergency Provisions

Part XVIII, Articles 352–360. Three kinds. One has been used three times, one over a hundred times, and one never. Knowing which is which answers most questions on its own.

The three emergencies at a glance

National Emergency — Article 352

• Grounds: war, external aggression, or armed rebellion.
• Needs approval by a special majority within 1 month; once approved it continues for 6 months at a time.
• During a National Emergency, Parliament can make laws on State List subjects.
• The term "armed rebellion" replaced "internal disturbance" by the 44th Constitutional Amendment, 1978.
• The word "cabinet" appears in the Constitution only in clause 3 of Article 352, added by the 44th Amendment — the President can proclaim an Emergency only on the written advice of the Cabinet.

Article 358 vs Article 359

The three National Emergencies

President's Rule — Articles 355, 356, 365

• Requires approval by Parliament with a simple majority within 2 months.
• President's Rule was first used in Punjab in 1951.
• Manipur has had President's Rule imposed the most times — 10 times.
• S. R. Bommai (1994) limited the arbitrary use of Article 356 and made it subject to judicial review.

Financial Emergency — Article 360

• Declared when the financial stability or credit of India is threatened.
• Has never been imposed in India.

Further tested points

Amending the Constitution

Article 368, Part XX. Three ways to amend — but only two of them count as amendments under Article 368. That distinction is the whole chapter.

The three routes

What passes by simple majority

• Emoluments of the President and Governors
• Use of the English language in Parliament
• Acquisition and termination of citizenship
• Formation of new states, and alteration of areas, boundaries and names
• Creation or abolition of Legislative Councils in states

What needs special majority

• Fundamental Rights
• Directive Principles of State Policy
• All other provisions not covered by the other two routes

What needs special majority plus state ratification

Provisions related to the federal structure:

• Election of the President and its manner
• Changes in the 7th Schedule (Union, State, Concurrent Lists)
• Representation of states in Parliament
• Article 368 itself

After ratification by half the state legislatures, the President signs the bill.

Procedure under Article 368

• Can be introduced in either the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha, by any member.
• No prior recommendation or assent of the President is required.
• The President cannot use a veto — he must give assent. Established by the 24th Amendment, 1971.
• There is no provision for a joint sitting on a Constitutional Amendment Bill.

What scholars said about the amending procedure

Amendments worth memorising

Further tested points

Constitutional & Other Bodies

Three tiers of bodies: Constitutional (named in the Constitution), Statutory (created by a law), Non-statutory/Executive (created by a government resolution). Almost every question here is really asking which tier a body belongs to.

Constitutional bodies

Election Commission of India

• Articles 324–329, Part XV.
• A permanent and independent body.
• Not concerned with the elections of Panchayats and Municipalities — those are run by the State Election Commission.
• Composition: Chief Election Commissioner + 2 other Election Commissioners.
• Appointment: by the President. Serve till the pleasure of the President.
• Term: 6 years or 65 years, whichever is earlier.
• Qualification: not prescribed by the Constitution.
• Salary and removal: same as a Supreme Court judge.
• Powers: administrative, advisory and quasi-judicial.
• Originally a single-membered body; became multi-membered in 1989.
• 61st Amendment Act, 1988 — voting age decreased from 21 to 18.
• First Chief Election Commissioner: Sukumar Sen.

Union Public Service Commission

• Articles 315–323, Part XIV. An independent constitutional body.
• Composition: at the discretion of the President.
• Qualification: one-half of the members must have held a government office for 10 years.
• Term: 6 years or 65 years, whichever is earlier.
• Recruitment: All India Services and Central Services, Group A and B.
• Known as the "Watch Dog of the Merit System" in India.
• Removal by the President if: bankrupt; holding any office of profit; unfit; or misbehaviour (on the recommendation of the Supreme Court after an enquiry).

State Public Service Commission

• Same articles, 315–323, Part XIV. An independent constitutional body.
• Composition at the discretion of the Governor; appointed by the Governor.
• Term: 6 years or 62 years, whichever is earlier.
• Recruitment for State Services.

Finance Commission

• Article 280. A quasi-judicial body — it holds the summoning power of a civil court.
• Composition: a Chairman + 4 other members — 5 in total.
• Constituted by the President every 5 years (or earlier).
• Members are eligible for reappointment.
• Submits its report to the President.
• Article 281 — recommendations of the Finance Commission. It makes recommendations on the net proceeds of taxes to be shared between Centre and States. The recommendations are not binding on the President.

Qualifications: the Chairman must have experience in public affairs. The four others: a judge of a High Court or one qualified to be appointed a High Court judge; a person with special knowledge of finance and accounts of government; a person with special knowledge of economics; a person with experience in financial matters and administration.

Comptroller and Auditor General of India

• Article 148. Head of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department.
• Created in 1919. A single-membered body.
• Appointed by the President. Term: 6 years or 65 years.
• Removal: by the President in the same manner as a Judge of the Supreme Court — i.e. by impeachment.
• Compiles and maintains the accounts of State Governments, not the Central Government.
• Known as the "Guardian of the Public Purse".
• B. R. Ambedkar called the CAG the "most important officer under the Government of India".
• First CAG: V. Narahari Rao.
• The CAG is described as the "friend, philosopher and guide" of the Public Accounts Committee.

GST Council

• Added by the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016. New Article inserted: Article 279A.
• A joint forum of the Centre and the States.
• Chairperson: the Union Finance Minister.
• The Union Revenue Secretary acts as the ex-officio Secretary to the Council.
• Voting: Centre one-third, States two-thirds. Decisions need a three-fourths majority.
• Decisions are not binding on the states.

National Commissions for SCs, STs and Backward Classes

• Article 338 — NCSC; Article 338A — NCST; Article 338B — NCBC.
• NCSC and NCST consist of a Chairperson + Vice-Chairperson + 3 other members, all appointed by the President.
• History: Art 338 originally provided for a Special Officer for SCs and STs → the 65th Amendment converted it into a multi-member Commission → the 89th Amendment, 2003 bifurcated it into the separate NCSC and NCST.
• NCBC: established in 1993 as a statutory body, following the Supreme Court's direction in the Mandal case, 1992. The 102nd Amendment Act, 2018 conferred constitutional status and inserted Article 338B.

Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities

• Conferred constitutional status by the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1956.
• Inserted a new Article 350B (Part XVII).
• Appointed by the President.
• Article 350A — primary-level education in the mother tongue.

Attorney General and Advocate General

• Attorney General — Article 76. Highest law officer in the country. Appointed by the President. Term not fixed by the Constitution. Qualified to be a Supreme Court judge. The post of Solicitor General was created to assist the Attorney General and is not a constitutional body.
• Advocate General — Article 165. Highest law officer in the state. Appointed by the Governor. Term not fixed. Removal: by the Governor at any time. Qualified to be a High Court judge.

Statutory bodies

Non-statutory / Executive bodies

Councils — one-look revision table

Master comparison — the constitutional bodies

Current officeholders and further facts

Landmark Cases & Doctrines

Every landmark case in one chronological spine — because SSC almost always tests them as a sequence, not as isolated facts.

The Fundamental Rights vs Parliament story, in order

Other landmark cases