1 · Invasions 712–1206

First Muslim invasion of India — who, when, where?

Muhammad bin Qasim, 712 AD, in Sindh. He came from Arabia.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Which ruler did Muhammad bin Qasim kill?

Raja Dahir, the last Hindu ruler of Sindh.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who first introduced Jizya in the Indian subcontinent?

Muhammad bin Qasim. (In the Delhi Sultanate, the first was Qutbuddin Aibak.)

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who was the first Turkish invader of India?

Mahmud of Ghazni — second Islamic invasion, first Turkish.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who founded the Ghaznavid dynasty?

Alaptigin, a Turkish slave. His successor Subuktigin defeated Jayapala.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

How many times did Mahmud of Ghazni attack India, and between which years?

17 times, between 1001 and 1027.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Battle of Peshawar, 1001 — Ghazni's opponent?

Jayapala of the Hindu Shahi dynasty. He was defeated and later ended his life on a funeral pyre.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Battle of Waihind / Chaach, 1008 — opponent?

Anandapala, Jayapala's son. Ghazni captured Bhimnagar and Nagarkot forts, opening Lahore, Taxila and Punjab.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Peshawar was earlier known as…

Waihind / Udbhand.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Which region could Mahmud of Ghazni never capture, and who ruled it?

Kashmir, ruled by Queen Didda.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Ghazni's 16th attack — target and year?

Somnath temple, Gujarat, 1025 AD. His last major expedition outside Punjab.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Ghazni's 1015 Mathura raid — who resisted?

Kokkala II of the Kalachuris.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Which Pratihara ruler fled Kannauj before Ghazni, and who replaced him?

Rajyapala fled; replaced by Trilochanapala, defeated by Ghazni in 1019.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who gave Ghazni strong resistance in 1021?

The Chandela ruler Vidyadhara.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Ghazni's final raid, 1027 — against whom?

The Jats near the Indus — a punitive naval campaign. The Khokhars harassed his returning army.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

When did Mahmud of Ghazni die?

1030 AD.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who wrote the Shahnama?

Firdausi, at Ghazni's court.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who wrote Kitab-ul-Hind, in which language?

Al-Biruni (Alberuni), in Arabic. Also called Tahqiq-i-Hind. He came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who wrote Kitab-ul-Yamini?

Utbi.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Muhammad Ghori's Persian name and relation to the Ghurid ruler?

Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam; younger brother of Ghiyasuddin Muhammad.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Ghori's first attack — where and when?

Multan, 1175 AD — successful.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Ghori's 1178 defeat — where and by whom?

Gujarat (Kayadara), by Mularaja II / Bhima II and their mother Naikidevi.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

First Battle of Tarain — year, parties, result?

1191 — Prithviraj Chauhan (Prithviraj III) vs Ghori. Prithviraj won; he failed to pursue the wounded Ghori.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Second Battle of Tarain — year, parties, result?

1192 — Prithviraj vs Ghori. Ghori won, laying the foundation of Turkish rule. Qutbuddin Aibak fought alongside and was given Hissar and Sirsa.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Battle of Chandawar — year, parties, result?

1194 — Ghori defeated and killed Jaichand, the Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who wrote Prithviraj Raso, in which language?

Chand Bardai, court poet of Prithviraj, in Braj, 12th century.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who killed Muhammad Ghori, and when?

The Khokhar tribe, in 1206.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Ghori's slaves and their territories after 1206?

Aibak → Lahore/Delhi · Yalduz → Ghazni · Qabacha → Multan & Uchch · Bakhtiyar Khalji → Bihar & Bengal.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who destroyed Nalanda and Vikramashila universities?

Bakhtiyar Khalji, c. 1200.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Bakhtiyar Khalji's two key conquests and their years?

Odantapuri fort (a Buddhist vihara), Bihar, 1193; Lakhnauti, Bengal, 1204.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Who assassinated Bakhtiyar Khalji?

His own general Ali Mardan Khan, on the bank of the Bagmati, 1205–06, during the Tibet/Assam expedition.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

In 1227, who annexed Bengal and Bihar for the Sultanate?

Nasiruddin Mahmud, Iltutmish's son, defeating Ghiyasuddin Iwaj. Malik Jani was made governor of Bihar.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

What was a Manshur?

A formal letter of investiture issued by the Khalifa to a Sultan, authorising him to rule a region.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Order of dynasties in Transoxiana & Khorasan?

Samanid (819–999) → Ghaznavid (977–1186) → Seljukid → Khwarizmi (crushed by Genghis Khan, 13th c.).

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Three reasons the Turks defeated the Rajputs?

Iqta system (paying/mobilising armies), superior horses and mounted archery, and the unifying 'spirit of Ghazi' — against notorious Rajput disunity.

1 · Invasions 712–1206

Which Turkish city was the main slave market feeding Islamic armies?

Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan). Slaves were bought, converted, promoted — some became rulers.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

When did Harshavardhana die, and what followed?

647 AD. His empire fragmented immediately, creating the vacuum in which the Rajput clans rose.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Which event led to the rise of several Rajput states?

The break-up of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire in the 10th century — not the fall of the Guptas or Mauryas.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

From what did the Rajputs claim descent?

The Agnikula (Fire Family), or solar/lunar lines, to legitimise their rule.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who were the Samantas?

Big landlords or warrior chiefs of the 7th c. whom kings acknowledged as subordinates. They brought gifts, gave military support and attended court. As they grew powerful they styled themselves Maha-Samantas.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

What was the Hiranyagarbha ritual?

'Golden womb' — a ritual performed with the help of Brahmanas by non-Kshatriya rulers (e.g. Dantidurga) to be 'reborn' as a Kshatriya.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

What was an Araghatta?

The Persian wheel — a geared waterwheel for lifting well water. (Bonded labour = vishti; land grant = iqta / madad-i-maash.)

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

The Tripartite Struggle — which three powers, and over what?

Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas, fighting for control of Kannauj, 8th–10th century.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Pratiharas — region and capital?

Western India (Rajasthan & Gujarat); capital Kannauj.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Palas — region and capital?

Eastern India (Bengal & Bihar); capital Munger / Pataliputra.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Rashtrakutas — region and capital?

Western Deccan (Maharashtra & Karnataka); capital Manyakheta (Gulbarga).

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who was Harichandra?

Founder of the Pratihara Mandore line — a Brahmin who gave up his priestly profession, took up arms and founded a kingdom in Rajasthan. Married a Kshatriya wife (Brahma-Kshatra).

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Which Pratihara ruler repelled the Arabs?

Nagabhata I (c. 730–760), founder of the imperial line. The Pratiharas are called the 'doorkeepers of India' for checking Arab expansion ~300 years.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

The Gwalior Prasasti — what and where?

The main inscription on the early Pratihara rulers, found at Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. Praises Nagabhata as destroyer of the mlechchha armies.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Which Pratihara ruler was the real consolidator, and what was his title?

Mihira Bhoja (836–885). A Vishnu devotee, he took the title Adivaraha (the boar incarnation) and minted coins bearing it.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who founded the Pala dynasty and how did he come to power?

Gopala, 8th century. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests he was elected by regional chieftains to end the anarchy called Matsyanyaya ('law of the fishes').

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Which Pala ruler founded Vikramashila University?

Dharmapala (c. 770–810). He also built the Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh). Vikramashila specialised in Vajrayana studies; destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji c. 1200.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Pala succession — who founded, built, expanded, revived?

Gopala founded · Dharmapala built Vikramashila · Devapala expanded (Assam, Odisha) · Mahipala I revived.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who wrote the Gita Govinda, and in whose court?

Jayadeva, in the court of Lakshmana Sena of Bengal, 12th century. On the love of Krishna and Radha.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and how?

Dantidurga (Dantivarman II), by overthrowing his Chalukya overlord Kirtivarman II in 753 CE. Performed the Hiranyagarbha ritual at Ujjain.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who built the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora?

Krishna I (Rashtrakuta). Cave 16 — the largest monolithic rock-cut structure in the world, carved top-down from a single basalt rock of the Charanandri hills, in Maharashtra.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who wrote Kavirajamarga?

Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta) — the earliest Kannada literary work.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Battle of Takkolam, 949 CE — parties and result?

Rashtrakuta Krishna III defeated the Chola Parantaka I (whose son Rajaditya was killed on his elephant). Krishna III occupied Tondaimandalam ~30 years and raised a victory pillar at Rameswaram.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who built the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, when and where?

Vidyadhara (Chandela), c. 1030, at Khajuraho. Largest and most ornate there; Nagara style.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Two distinctive features of Chandela temples?

No boundary walls, and they stand on a high platform called a jagati.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Which dynasty first made Delhi a capital, and who founded that line?

The Tomaras; founded by Anangpal. They built Qila Rai Pithora, the 1st city of Delhi.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

What were Dehliwal coins?

Pre-Sultanate Delhi coins minted by the Tomaras and Chauhans — billon (silver+copper), with the bull-and-horseman device and the ruler's name in Nagari.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who founded Ajmer?

Ajayaraja II (Chahamana) — as Ajayameru.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who wrote Harakeli Nataka, and what else is he known for?

Vigraharaja IV (Visaladeva), Chahamana — he also took Chittor and Delhi from the Tomaras in 1151.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

The Chahamanas were squeezed between which two powers?

The Chalukyas of Gujarat in the west and the Gahadavalas of Kannauj in the east.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who built the Vijay Stambha, where and when?

Rana Kumbha (Sisodia of Mewar, 1433–68), at Chittorgarh.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Kakatiya capital?

Orugallu (Warangal) — not Manyakheta. Their most famous ruler was Queen Rudramadevi.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Where did the Kohinoor originally come from?

The Kakatiyas — mined at Kollur in the Golconda region, set as the eye of a deity at Warangal, and looted by Malik Kafur.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Hoysala capital?

Dwarasamudra (Halebidu) — not Devagiri. Famous for stellate (star-shaped) temple plans.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Yadava (Seuna) capital, and what was it renamed?

Devagiri, renamed Daulatabad by Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Last major ruler: Ramachandra Deva.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who built the Martand Sun Temple, and where?

Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty, 8th c., at Anantnag, Kashmir.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Queen Didda — where, when, and which source describes her?

Ruled Kashmir 980–1003 (Lohara dynasty), first as regent then in her own right. Described in Kalhana's Rajatarangini.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Nagara, Dravida and Vesara — region and tower?

Nagara: North, curvilinear shikhara · Dravida: South, pyramidal vimana + gopurams · Vesara: Deccan, a Nagara + Dravida hybrid.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Give one example each of Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.

Nagara — Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho · Dravida — Brihadeeswarar, Thanjavur · Vesara — Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal; Hoysaleswara, Halebidu.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Who founded Gwalior Fort, and what did Babur call it?

Traditionally Raja Suraj Sen (Sourya Sena), c. 773 CE, after a sage named Gwalipa cured his leprosy. Babur called it 'the pearl in the necklace of the forts of Hind.'

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Which Rajput house ruled from Chittor, then Udaipur?

The Sisodias of Mewar, claiming solar descent. Peak under Rana Kumbha and Rana Sanga.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Paramara capital and most famous ruler?

Dhar (Malwa); Raja Bhoja. Later replaced by the Malwa Sultanate.

2 · Early Medieval Kingdoms

Which dynasty built the Sun Temple at Modhera?

The Solankis / Chalukyas of Gujarat. They defeated both Ghori (1178) and Prithviraj (1182).

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Who founded the imperial Chola line, and what did he build?

Vijayalaya (c. 850–870). He captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar chieftains, made Thanjavur his capital, and built a temple to the goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga).

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Which Chola was defeated at Takkolam, and by whom?

Parantaka I (907–955), by Rashtrakuta Krishna III in 949.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Who built the Brihadeeswarar Temple — where, when, and what was its innovation?

Rajaraja I, at Thanjavur, in 1010. First to use a massive ~80-tonne monolithic granite shikhara over the sanctum; 66 m vimana.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Rajaraja I's title 'Mummudi Chola' means?

Wearer of three crowns — Chola, Chera and Pandya.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Where did Rajaraja I destroy the Chera navy?

At Kandalur Salai. He also conquered Madurai and invaded Sri Lanka.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Rajendra Chola I's relation to Rajaraja I, and his famous title?

Son of Rajaraja I. Title Gangaikonda — 'he who took the Ganga' — after defeating Mahipala I of the Palas.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

What new capital did Rajendra I found?

Gangaikonda Cholapuram, with a grand temple built to rival his father's. Thanjavur's tower has straight lines; Gangaikonda Cholapuram's has a concave curve.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

What was the Cholagangam?

Rajendra I's huge irrigation tank, ~16 miles long, filled from the Kollidam and Vellar. He poured Ganga water into it and called it a 'liquid pillar of victory.'

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Rajendra Chola I's overseas expedition — against whom and when?

The Kadaram campaign, c. 1025, against the Srivijaya empire of Southeast Asia (king Sangrama-Vijayatungavarman) — to secure trade routes. A unique trans-oceanic Indian campaign.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

How do you tell a Rajaraja question from a Rajendra question?

Irrigation, Southeast Asia or Ganga → Rajendra I. 'Greatest / most powerful' or Thanjavur → Rajaraja I.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Who was Kulottunga I?

Rajendra's grandson through his daughter Ammangadevi — united the Chola and Eastern Chalukya lines. Used the title Tribhuvana-chakravartin.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

What does 'Tribhuvana-chakravartin' mean?

Lord / Emperor of the Three Worlds. (Maharaja-adhiraja = great king of kings; Ekrat = sole ruler; Devraja = divine king.)

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

What was the main constraint on Chola agriculture?

Water for irrigation — the Tamil region depends on an erratic monsoon. Kings built tanks (eris), embankments, canals and sluices (kumizhi). The Kaveri delta was the rice bowl.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Who built the Grand Anicut (Kallanai)?

The early Chola king Karikala.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

What was Kadamai?

Land revenue — the main Chola state income.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

What was Vetti, and in what form was it collected?

Forced unpaid labour (corvée) — the most frequently mentioned tax in Chola inscriptions. Not cash, gold or grain.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

What was Kudimai?

Dues owed by a tenant to a landlord under the Cholas.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

How many tax terms appear in Chola inscriptions?

Over 400.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Name the three Chola village/local assemblies.

Ur — general assembly of landholders · Sabha — brahmadeya villages · Nagaram — merchants.

3 · Cholas & the Deep South

Which temple system was prevalent under the Cholas?

The Devadasi system.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate, in order with years?

Slave 1206–90 · Khalji 1290–1320 · Tughlaq 1320–1414 · Sayyid 1414–51 · Lodi 1451–1526.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which Sultanate dynasty ruled longest, and which shortest?

Longest: Tughlaq (94 years). Shortest: Khalji (30 years).

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Three names for the Slave dynasty?

Slave, Mamluk, and Ilbari (from the Ilbari/Shamshi Turkish tribe). It produced the largest number of sultans.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Order of Slave dynasty rulers?

Qutbuddin Aibak → Aram Shah → Iltutmish → Ruknuddin Firuz → Razia → Muizuddin Bahram → Alauddin Masud → Nasiruddin Mahmud → Balban → Qaiqabad.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

What were the Bandagan?

Military slaves purchased by the Sultan (sing. banda), trained to be loyal only to their master and raised to high office as governors and generals — bypassing tribal loyalties. Bandagan-i-Khas = royal slaves.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who founded the Delhi Sultanate, and what was his capital?

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206–10), a slave and commander of Muhammad Ghori. Capital: Lahore.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Why was Aibak called 'Lakh Baksh'?

'Giver of lakhs' — for his generosity.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

How and where did Qutbuddin Aibak die?

In 1210, falling from his horse while playing Chaugan (polo) at Lahore. His mausoleum is in Lahore, Pakistan.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which two mosques did Aibak build?

Quwwat-ul-Islam at Mehrauli, Delhi (in the corbel-arch technique) and Adhai Din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Qutub Minar was begun in honour of which saint?

The Sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, whose mausoleum is in Delhi. Aibak laid only the basement.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who is considered the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate?

Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211–36). Son-in-law of Aibak; before accession he was governor of Badaun.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who shifted the Sultanate capital from Lahore to Delhi?

Iltutmish.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Why was Iltutmish called the 'Slave of Slaves'?

He was a slave of Aibak, who was himself a slave of Ghori.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which title did Iltutmish receive from the Caliph of Baghdad, and when?

Sultan-e-Azam, in 1229 — formal legitimacy, the first for a Delhi Sultan.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

What was the Turkan-i-Chahalgani, and who formed it?

The corps of forty loyal Turkish slave-nobles (also called the Chalisa), formed by Iltutmish. It was destroyed by Balban.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which coins did Iltutmish introduce?

The silver Tanka and the copper Jital. He was the first Turkish Sultan to issue pure Arabic coins.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who institutionalised the Iqta system in India?

Iltutmish.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who was Iltutmish's wazir?

Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which historian lived at Iltutmish's court, and what did he write?

Minhaj-us-Siraj, author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which buildings are credited to Iltutmish?

Completed the Qutub Minar (added three storeys); built the Hauz-i-Shamsi reservoir and the Sultan Garhi mausoleum. His own tomb was built in 1235.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

How did Iltutmish save Delhi from Genghis Khan?

In 1221 the fleeing Khwarazmian prince Jalal-ud-din Mingburnu sought asylum and alliance. Iltutmish diplomatically refused, saying the climate would not suit him — so he gave Genghis no reason to invade.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

When did Genghis Khan die?

1227.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who was the first and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate?

Razia Sultan (1236–40), daughter of Iltutmish — the only female Muslim sovereign of medieval India.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Whom did Iltutmish bypass to nominate Razia?

His incompetent sons, including Ruknuddin Firuz. The Turkish nobles disapproved.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

How did Razia break convention?

She discarded the purdah, held open durbars and led armies personally.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Whom did Razia appoint as Amir-i-Akhur, and why did it matter?

Jalaluddin Yakut, a non-Turk (Abyssinian/Ethiopian slave), as superintendent of the royal stables. The Turkish nobles resented it.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who was Altunia, and what was his relationship with Razia?

Governor of Bhatinda. He refused her suzerainty, killed Yakut and imprisoned her at Qila Mubarak — and later married her.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

When and where did Razia die, and how long did she rule?

1240, killed in a conspiracy near Kaithal, Haryana. She ruled about 4 years.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

What did Minhaj-us-Siraj write about Razia?

In Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, that she was 'more able and qualified than all her brothers' — while lamenting she was not born a man. Historian Al-Numan made a similar judgement.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Balban's original name, and the title Nasiruddin Mahmud gave him?

Original name Baha-ud-Din; title Ulugh Khan. He was Naib, then wazir, before taking the throne in 1265. Ruled 21 years.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

What was Balban's most important political achievement?

He broke the power of the Chahalgani / Chalisa — the very group he came from — restoring the prestige of the crown and ending the Turkish slave-noble oligarchy.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which Persian court practices did Balban introduce?

Sijda (prostration before the monarch), Paibos (kissing the Sultan's feet), and the Iranian new-year festival Nowruz / Navroz (spring equinox).

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Balban's governance policy was called?

'Blood and Iron' — to enforce order.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

What title did Balban confer on himself, and what descent did he claim?

Zil-i-Ilahi — 'Shadow of God'. He claimed descent from the legendary Turkish hero Afrasiyab.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which two departments did Balban establish?

Diwan-i-Arz (military) and Barid-i-Mumalik (intelligence; its head was the Barid). Also Diwan-i-Wajahat (finance).

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who was Tughril Beg?

Governor of Bengal (Lakhnauti) who revolted and declared independence in 1279. Balban crushed and killed him with his son Bughra Khan's help.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

What was special about Balban's Tomb?

The first mausoleum in India built in a pure Islamic style, with a true mehrab arch built on scientific principles.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which poet began his career at Balban's court?

Amir Khusro.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Who was the last ruler of the Slave dynasty?

Shamsuddin Kayumars (Kamboh), who was murdered. Qaiqabad (Balban's grandson) ruled 1287–90 before him.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Which four Slave-dynasty rulers are asked as a chronology question?

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206–10) → Iltutmish (1211–36) → Razia (1236–40) → Balban (1266–87).

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Sultanate offices: Wazir, Naib, Amil, Amir?

Wazir — PM, headed finance · Naib — all departments except finance · Amil — revenue collector · Amir — governor of a pargana / high noble.

4 · Slave / Mamluk Dynasty

Sultanate offices: Mustaufi, Barid, Faujdar, Sarkhail?

Mustaufi — Auditor General · Barid — spy/intelligence · Faujdar — military/garrison commander · Sarkhail — cavalry officer.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Why did the old Turkish nobility resist the Khaljis?

They were Turks but not of the Ilbari/Shamshi tribe.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Who founded the Khalji dynasty, and what was he known for?

Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–96) — the first Sultan of Delhi who was largely secular and tolerant, refraining from harsh punishment and admitting Hindus and non-Turks to high office.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

How did Jalaluddin Khalji die?

Murdered by his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Alauddin Khalji's real name and relationship to Jalaluddin?

Ali Gurshasp; nephew and son-in-law. Under his uncle he held the title Amir-i-Tuzuk (master of ceremonies). His brother was Nusrat Khan. Ruled 20 years.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Alauddin's most famous title, and why?

Sikandar-i-Sani — the 'Second Alexander' — taken after his Deccan expeditions.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Which was the first Muslim empire to cover almost all of India?

Alauddin Khalji's — down to the southern tip.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

How did Alauddin change how soldiers were paid?

He abolished the iqta in the heartland and paid soldiers in cash (naqdi) — the first emperor to keep a standing army on cash salaries.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Alauddin's Gujarat campaign — year, ruler, generals?

1298, against Rai Karan (Vaghela) at Anhilwara. Generals: Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Ranthambore — year and ruler?

1301, against Hammira Deva Chauhan. The first evidence of jauhar comes from here.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Chittor — year and ruler?

1303, against Rana Ratan Singh (Guhilot).

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Alauddin's Malwa and Marwar campaigns?

Malwa 1305; Marwar 1308 (Jalor 1311).

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Who was Malik Kafur, and why 'Hazar Dinari'?

A eunuch slave-general bought at the Gujarat market for 1000 dinars. He was commander-in-chief and led all Alauddin's southern campaigns.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Deccan campaign 1308 — kingdom, capital, ruler?

Yadava, capital Devagiri, ruler Ramachandra Deva — given khilat and chhatra by Alauddin.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Deccan campaign 1309 — kingdom, capital, ruler?

Hoysala, capital Dwarasamudra, ruler Vira Ballala III.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Deccan campaign 1311 — which two kingdoms?

Kakatiya (Warangal, Prataparudra Deva) and Pandya (Madurai, Vira Pandya). After Madurai, Kafur became Malik Naib.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Why could Alauddin never have attacked Vijayanagara?

Vijayanagara did not exist yet — founded in 1336; his southern campaigns ran 1296–1311.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Two sources on Alauddin's southern campaigns?

Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani and Khazain-ul-Futuh by Amir Khusro.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

How many times did the Mongols invade under Alauddin, and with what result?

Seven times (1297, 1299 under Kutlugh Khwaja, 1303 under Targhi, 1305…). Alauddin defeated them every time, deploying Zafar Khan and Ghazi Malik.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Which capital did Alauddin build and fortify against the Mongols?

Siri, in 1304 — the 2nd city of Delhi.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Who was the Ariz-i-Mumalik?

Alauddin's military minister. He was the first Sultan to establish a permanent standing army.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What was Dagh?

Branding of horses with a hot iron mark, so weak substitute horses could not be shown at muster.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What was Chehra (huliya)?

A descriptive roll of every soldier's physical features. Both Dagh and Chehra reformed the army, not the market.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What was the real purpose of Alauddin's market reforms?

To keep essential prices low so a large standing army could be maintained on fixed cash salaries without inflation — the army being needed against the Mongols.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Name Alauddin's three functional markets.

Food grains (officer: Shahna-i-Mandi) · Sarai-i-Adl (costly cloth & manufactured goods, government-supported) · Horses, slaves and cattle.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Who supervised each of Alauddin's markets?

A Shahna, who kept a register of merchants, shopkeepers and prices. Sadr-i-Riyasat managed the market department overall.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Who transported grain to Delhi's markets under Alauddin?

The Banjaras, a nomadic trading community, required to settle near Delhi and register with the state. Shuhna supervised them.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Alauddin is called the creator of which system?

The 'public distribution system'.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Who first ordered the measurement of land, and what was it called?

Alauddin Khalji. Measurement was called Masahat, in bigha and biswa (1 bigha = 20 biswa).

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What share of produce did Alauddin take as land revenue, and in what form?

Half (50%), collected in cash.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What was Mustakhraj?

Alauddin's special officer for collecting revenue and arrears. (Mustasarif = arrears; Amil = collector; Gumashtas = agents.)

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Alauddin's four main taxes?

Jizya (non-Muslims) · Kharaj/bhumi-kar (land) · Ghari (house) · Charai (pasture/grazing). Zakat was levied on Muslims.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What was Khalisa land?

Crown land outside any iqta, directly under the state. Alauddin brought the Doab under it.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Which intermediaries did Alauddin deliberately weaken?

The Rana and Rawat Rajput chiefs, and village heads called Muqaddam / Chaudhary. Barani calls the pargana-level intermediary khut; Khusro calls him zamindar.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Amir Khusro's dates and the rulers he served?

1253–1325; served courts from Balban to Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Who was Amir Khusro's spiritual guru?

The Sufi saint Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Amir Khusro's title, and what he gave Alauddin?

Tuti-e-Hind — 'Parrot of India' — conferred by Alauddin. Khusro gave Alauddin the title Sultan-e-Jahan.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What musical innovations are credited to Amir Khusro?

Often called the first poet of Urdu and the 'father of the sitar'; credited with starting Qawwali in India and inventing the tabla and sitar.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

Which buildings did Alauddin Khalji construct?

Siri (2nd city of Delhi), Alai Darwaza (1311), Hauz Khas tank, Alai Fort, Hazar Sutun ('palace of a thousand pillars'), and the Jamaat Khana Mosque.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

What happened after Alauddin's death in 1316?

Malik Kafur seized power briefly; Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (Alauddin's son) killed Kafur and ended all his father's strict regulations.

5 · Khalji Dynasty

How did the Khalji dynasty end?

In 1320 Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah assassinated Mubarak Shah. Governor Ghazi Malik of Dipalpur then killed Khusrau and, as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, founded the Tughlaq dynasty.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Who founded the Tughlaq dynasty, and what was his real name?

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–25); real name Ghazi Malik. He killed Khusrau Khan to take the throne.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which city did Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq build, and what is its architectural hallmark?

Tughlaqabad — the 3rd city of Delhi, c. 1321–25, built against Mongol attack. Hallmark: massive battered (sloping) walls.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which two systems did Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq start?

The postal and revenue systems.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin's Warangal campaigns — years and outcome?

1321 — Jauna Khan sent against Prataparudra, unsuccessful. 1322 — Jauna took Warangal. 1324 — Bengal brought under Delhi.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

How did Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq die?

In 1325, in an accident — a collapsing pavilion at Afghanpur.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's original name and nickname?

Jauna Khan / Ulugh Khan. Known as the 'wisest fool.' Ruled 26 years with the largest kingdom of the Sultanate.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which subjects was Muhammad bin Tughlaq a scholar of?

Logic, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, calligraphy and physics. He was also the first Sultan to visit the tomb of Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which humble-profession appointees did MBT promote, and why is it asked?

Aziz Khummar (wine distiller), Firuz Hajjam (barber), Manka Tabbakh (cook), Ladha and Pira (gardeners). Barani cited it as 'loss of judgment'; modern historians read it as breaking the old Turkish nobility's monopoly.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which Sultan's reign saw the most rebellions?

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's. Some historians called him ruthless, bloodthirsty and irreligious.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Where and when did Muhammad bin Tughlaq die?

Near Thatta (Sindh), in 1351.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

MBT's Doab experiment — year and result?

1326 — raised taxation in the Doab (Ganga–Yamuna) to cover treasury losses. A severe famine struck and the farmers rebelled.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

MBT's capital transfer — year, from where to where?

1327 — from Delhi to Devagiri, renamed Daulatabad, to control the Deccan and escape the Mongol threat. The population was forcibly relocated; he had to reverse it.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

MBT's token currency — year and why it failed?

1329 — copper/brass (bronze) coins issued at par with the silver tanka, inspired by Chinese and Persian models. Collapsed through mass forgery.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

MBT's two failed expeditions?

Khurasan (1329) — proposed, huge army raised, never executed. Qarachil (1330) — a disastrous Himalayan campaign.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What was the Diwan-i-Kohi, and who created it?

The agriculture department (Diwan-i-Amir Kohi), created by Muhammad bin Tughlaq — to bring barren land under cultivation with direct state support.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What were Sondhar and Taccavi loans?

MBT's loans — Sondhar (cash against gold) and Taccavi / Takkavi (agricultural loans to farmers).

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which city of Delhi did MBT build?

Jahanpanah — the 4th city of Delhi. He also built the mausoleum of Nizamuddin Auliya.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Ibn Battuta's full name, birth date and nationality?

Muhammad Ibn Battuta, born 25 February 1304; a Moroccan — geographer, jurist, judge and explorer.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

When did Ibn Battuta arrive in India, and under whom?

1333/1334, via the mountains of Afghanistan, under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, when the Tughlaq dynasty was at its height.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What positions did Ibn Battuta hold in India?

Chief Qazi of Delhi (at 5,000 silver dinars a year), later sent to China as ambassador. He received 2,000 silver dinars and a furnished house as a welcome gift.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What did Ibn Battuta write, and in which language?

Rihla ('The Journey'), in Arabic.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What did Ibn Battuta note about Indian chieftains' defences?

They fortified themselves in dense bamboo groves, so intertwined that fire could not burn them — natural forts the Sultan's army struggled to penetrate.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Ibn Battuta's account of the postal system?

Uluq — horse post, stations every 4 miles. Dawa — foot post, 3 stations per mile; runners carried a bell to announce arrival.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Firoz Shah Tughlaq — relation to MBT and where was he first crowned?

Cousin and successor. Crowned twice; the first coronation was at Thatta (Sindh) in 1351.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Firoz Shah Tughlaq's autobiography?

Futuhat-i-Firozshahi.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What did Elphinstone call Firoz Shah Tughlaq?

The 'Akbar of the Sultanate era.' Contemporaries called him the 'first welfare-state builder' and an autocratic ruler.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What did Firoz Shah's Translation Department do?

He was the first Sultan to have Hindu religious texts translated into Persian.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

How did Firoz Shah treat MBT's agricultural loans?

He took them back and waived the farmers' debts. He also organised the Sultanate's first proper revenue system.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Firoz Shah's four main taxes?

Kharaj (1/10th of produce) · Khams (1/5th of war booty) · Jizya (poll tax) · Zakat (2–2.5% on Muslims).

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What was Khums, and who reversed its ratio?

1/5th of war booty — the state's share. Under Sharia the state took 1/5 and soldiers 4/5; Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq reversed it to 4/5 for the state.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Who first imposed jizya on Brahmins?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Jizya became a separate tax in his time.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What was Haq-i-Sharb?

The irrigation tax — Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the first Sultan of Delhi to impose it. Farmers using royal canal water paid 1/10th of their produce.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Firoz Shah's two most famous canals?

Rajwahi and Ulugkhani.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which coins did Firoz Shah Tughlaq introduce?

Mixed copper-and-silver coins named Adha and Bikh.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which four cities did Firoz Shah Tughlaq found?

Firozabad (5th city of Delhi), Hisar, Fatehabad (Haryana, after his son Fateh Khan) and Jaunpur.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What is Feroz Shah Kotla, and what stands in it?

The fort of Firozabad, built 1354 on the Yamuna — the 'home of the djinns'. It houses the Ashokan pillar brought from Topra.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which city is called Shiraz-i-Hind, and who founded it?

Jaunpur — founded by Firoz Shah Tughlaq and named after Jauna Khan (MBT). It earned the title under the later Sharqi dynasty.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

What did Firoz Shah do to the Qutub Minar?

Repaired it and built its 5th storey.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Firoz Shah's four new departments?

Diwan-i-Khairat (charity, incl. marriage of poor girls) · Dar-ul-Shifa (government hospital) · Diwan-i-Bandagan (slaves) · Diwan-i-Ishtiaq (pensions).

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

How did Firoz Shah pay his soldiers, and what did he do to the iqta?

Not in cash but by assignments on village land revenue called Vajeha; he made the iqta hereditary — reversing Alauddin.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Who was Firoz Shah Tughlaq's powerful wazir?

Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul. His son Khan-i-Jahan II followed but clashed with Prince Muhammad.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Timur's invasion — year, origin, and which Sultan was ruling?

1398. A Turco-Mongol commander who came from Samarkand through Punjab. The Sultan was Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah Tughlaq (1394–1412), the last Tughlaq.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

How long did Timur stay in Delhi, and whom did he appoint?

About 15 days, looting on a massive scale. He appointed Khizr Khan as ruler of Multan on his way out.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

When did Timur die?

1405, while marching to conquer China.

6 · Tughlaq Dynasty

Which three regions broke away from Delhi in the late Tughlaq period?

Jaunpur, Gujarat and Malwa.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

How many Sayyid rulers, and for how many years?

Four — Khizr Khan, Mubarak Shah, Muhammad Shah, Alam Shah — for 37 years (1414–51). Known as Kulah-Daran ('cap wearers').

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who founded the Sayyid dynasty, and what was his previous post?

Khizr Khan (1414–21), formerly governor of Multan and Timur's deputy there. He marched on Delhi in the vacuum after 1398 and defeated Daulat Khan.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

In whose name did Khizr Khan rule, and what title did he take?

As representative of Shah Rukh, Timur's son and successor. Title: Rayat-i-Ala.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Which text calls Khizr Khan a 'Sayyid', and who wrote it?

Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi by Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi — indicating descent from the Prophet Muhammad.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who was the most capable Sayyid ruler, and what did he assert?

Mubarak Shah (1421–34), son of Khizr Khan. He issued coins and had the khutba read in his own name — declaring independence from Timurid overlordship.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Which rebellions did Mubarak Shah crush?

Rebellions in Bhatinda and the Doab, and the uprising of the rebel leader Jasrat.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Which city did Mubarak Shah found?

Mubarakabad, on the banks of the Yamuna.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

With whose help did Muhammad Shah become ruler, and what title did he give Bahlol Lodi?

With help of Sarwar-ul-Mulk. He declared Bahlol Lodi his son and gave him the title Khan-i-Khanan. The dynasty's decline began in his reign.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who was the last Sayyid ruler?

Alauddin Alam Shah (1445–51) — weak, displaced by Bahlol Lodi in 1451.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

What was distinctive about the Lodi dynasty's origin?

The first (and only) Afghan / Pashtun dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate — earlier dynasties were Turkish or Turko-Afghan.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Which architectural feature did the Lodis introduce?

Double-dome architecture — e.g. Moth ki Masjid.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who founded the Lodi dynasty and what were his earlier posts?

Bahlol Lodi (1451–89) — under Muhammad Shah he had been governor of Lahore and Sirhind.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Bahlol Lodi's most successful campaign?

Against Mahmud Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur. He also conquered Mewat, Sambhal, Suket, Bhongir, Rewari, Etawah and Chandwar.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who was the ablest Lodi ruler, and by what other name?

Sikandar Lodi (1489/1498–1517), also known as Nizam Shah.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

When was Agra founded, by whom, and when did the capital shift there?

Founded 1504 by Sikandar Lodi (on the site of Badalgarh village); capital shifted from Delhi to Agra in 1506 — to control the Doab, Etawah, Gwalior and the Rajasthan rulers.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

What was the Gaz-i-Sikandari?

The 'Sikandari yard' of 32 digits / 39 units, introduced by Sikandar Lodi for measuring cultivated land.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Two administrative innovations of Sikandar Lodi?

An efficient spy system and a system to audit government accounts.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Sikandar Lodi's pen name, and what did he write?

Gulrukhi — he wrote Persian poetry. A liberal patron of art and culture, though a devout Sunni who imposed jizya and restricted Hindu pilgrimage.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Sikandar Lodi's dealings with Bengal and Bihar?

Defeated the kings of Bihar and Tirhut; signed a treaty with Alauddin Hussain Shah of Bengal; appointed Daria Khan governor of Bengal.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who was the last Sultan of the Lodi dynasty, and how did he secure the throne?

Ibrahim Lodi (1517–26). He killed his brother Jalal (ruler of Jaunpur) to become sole heir.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who declared Bihar independent under Ibrahim Lodi?

Dariya Khan Lohani.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Why did Ibrahim Lodi's nobles turn against him?

His oppressive treatment of the Lohani and Lodi clans and of Lahore's governor Daulat Khan.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Ibrahim Lodi vs Rana Sanga — where and over what?

At Khatoli and Dholpur (1517–19), over eastern Rajasthan and Malwa.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Who invited Babur to invade India?

Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Punjab.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Which battle ended the Delhi Sultanate?

First Battle of Panipat, 21 April 1526 — Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi, beginning the Mughal Empire.

7 · Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

Which dynasty ruled India for only fifteen years?

The Sur dynasty (1540–55). Khalji ruled 30, Tughlaq 94, Lodi 75.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

What was an Iqta?

A large land area assigned to a noble or soldier in exchange for military service, revenue collection and local administration. Temporary and transferable — not a hereditary land grant. The state kept ownership.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who was a Muqti, and what was his main duty?

The holder of an iqta (also Wali, Iqtadar). His duty: lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in his iqta, collect revenue, pay his soldiers from it, and act as provincial governor.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

What was Fawazil?

The surplus revenue a Muqti remitted to the Sultan after paying his troops.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Trace the iqta system through four rulers.

Iltutmish institutionalised it → Alauddin Khalji largely abolished it in the core (cash salaries) → Firoz Shah Tughlaq revived it and made it hereditary → the Mughals replaced it with Mansabdari.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Which empire used neither Iqta nor Mansabdari?

Vijayanagara — it used the Nayankara / Amara-Nayaka system.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Diwan-i-Arz — function and founder?

Military department; founded by Ghiyasuddin Balban.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Diwan-i-Riyasat and Diwan-i-Mustakhraj — function and founder?

Commerce/market control and arrears/revenue; both founded by Alauddin Khalji.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Diwan-i-Kohi — function and founder?

Agriculture; founded by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Which three departments did Firoz Shah Tughlaq found?

Diwan-i-Khairat (charity), Diwan-i-Bandagan (slaves), Diwan-i-Ishtiaq (pensions).

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i-Risalat?

Finance · Correspondence · Appeals / religious matters.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Which coin did Muhammad Ghori issue, and what was on it?

A coin called 'Dihli' — the figure of Lakshmi and a horseman on one side, and 'Muhammad bin Sam' in Devanagari on the other.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Which coins are associated with Muhammad bin Tughlaq?

Token currency (1329); the bronze coin Adli; and he was first to engrave the Kalma on coins.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Jizya vs Zakat?

Jizya — religious poll tax on non-Muslims (dhimmis), in return for protection. Zakat — religious tax on Muslims (~2–2.5% of wealth), for charity.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Kharaj, Ghari and Charai?

Kharaj — land revenue from non-Muslim cultivators · Ghari — house tax · Charai — grazing/pasture tax. The last two were Alauddin's.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

What were the Tawarikh, and who wrote them?

Histories written in Persian, the language of administration. Their authors were both administrators/secretaries and poets/courtiers who recorded events and also advised sultans on just rule, living mostly in cities and writing for reward.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

What is the 'circle of justice', and who stated it?

Fakhr-i Mudabbir in Adab al-Harb wa-l-Shuja'a: a king needs soldiers, soldiers need salaries, salaries come from revenue, revenue comes from peasants, and peasants pay only when prosperous and protected by a just king.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri?

Minhaj-us-Siraj.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and Fatawa-i-Jahandari?

Ziauddin Barani.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who wrote Futuh-us-Salatin?

Isami.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who wrote Tajul-Ma'asir?

Hasan-un-Nizami, patronised by Qutbuddin Aibak.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who were the Khokhars, and what are they known for?

An influential Punjab tribe of the 13th–14th c. who controlled the Lahore–Ghazni routes and repeatedly rebelled. They assassinated Muhammad Ghori in 1206.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who were the Gaddis?

Transhumant shepherds of the Western Himalayas (Kangra, Chamba — Himachal), moving flocks between low hills and high pastures.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Who were the Cheros, and who defeated them?

A tribe of Bihar and Jharkhand, emerged by the 12th c.; defeated by Akbar's general Raja Man Singh in 1591.

8 · Sultanate Admin & Economy

Which two houses ruled Multan and Sindh in the late 15th–early 16th century?

Langah in Multan and Arghun in Sindh, until the Mughals subdued them.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

What structural innovation did the Delhi Sultanate bring to India?

The true arch and the dome — built from wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs) around a central keystone, replacing the indigenous trabeate (post-and-lintel) system.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Which technique does Aibak's Quwwat-ul-Islam still use?

The older corbel arch. The true arch matures later.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Qutub Minar — height, storeys, base and top diameter?

73 m (72.5 m), 5 storeys, red sandstone; base diameter 14.32 m, tapering to about 2.75 m at the top. The tallest brick minaret in the world; UNESCO site since 1993.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Trace the four builders of the Qutub Minar.

Aibak laid the foundation → Iltutmish added three storeys and completed it → Firoz Shah Tughlaq repaired it and built the 5th storey → repaired again by Sikandar Lodi.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Who built the Alai Darwaza, when, and what is it?

Alauddin Khalji, 1311 — red sandstone with white marble, the southern gateway to Quwwat-ul-Islam in the Qutb complex.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Name the seven cities of Delhi with their builders.

1 Qila Rai Pithora (Tomaras/Prithviraj) · 2 Siri (Alauddin, 1304) · 3 Tughlaqabad (Ghiyasuddin) · 4 Jahanpanah (MBT) · 5 Firozabad (Firoz Shah) · 6 Dinpanah/Shergarh (Humayun & Sher Shah) · 7 Shahjahanabad (Shah Jahan, 1638).

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Which mausoleum did Iltutmish build, and which reservoir?

The Sultan Garhi mausoleum and the Hauz-i-Shamsi reservoir.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Which mosque did Sikandar Lodi order built?

Moth ki Masjid — an early double-dome example.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Were provincial architectural styles uniform?

No — they were highly diverse, distinct from imperial Delhi, blending Islamic structure with local craft traditions.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Bengal provincial style?

Brick and terracotta, with curved bangla roofs.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Jaunpur provincial style?

The Sharqi style — monumental propylon screens; e.g. the Atala Masjid.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Gujarat provincial style?

The richest fusion — mosques and tombs carry toranas (gateways), bell-and-chain motifs and finely carved pillars from Hindu/Jain temple vocabulary. It embraced indigenous decoration.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Which architectural feature proves a style is Gothic, not Indo-Islamic?

Flying buttresses — along with ribbed vaults, pointed arches and stained glass. Indo-Islamic architecture has no flying buttresses.

9 · Sultanate Architecture

Match: Qutub Minar, Khajuraho, India Gate, Lotus Temple.

Qutub Minar → Indo-Islamic (Mamluk) · Khajuraho → Nagara (Hindu) · India Gate → Indo-Saracenic/neo-classical, British · Lotus Temple → modern expressionist.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who founded Vijayanagara, when, where, and whose feudatories were they?

Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, sons of Sangama of Warangal, in 1336, on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra. Originally feudatories of the Kakatiyas, later ministers at Kampili.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Which sage advised the founders of Vijayanagara?

Vidyaranya. They rebelled against Delhi's control on his advice.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who was Sultan of Delhi when Vijayanagara was founded?

Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Where does the name 'Hampi' come from?

From Pampa, the ancient name of the Tungabhadra, associated with the local mother goddess Pampadevi, consort of Lord Virupaksha — not from Harihara or Bukka.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Harihara I's title, and what did Bukka rename the city?

Title Karnataka Vidya Vilas. Bukka renamed Vidyanagar as Vijayanagara.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Narapati, Ashvapati, Gajapati — who is which?

Narapati (Lord of Men) — Vijayanagara Rayas · Ashvapati (Lord of Horses) — Deccan Sultans, for their cavalry · Gajapati (Lord of Elephants) — the Gajapatis of Odisha.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What did early Vijayanagara rulers call themselves, blending two traditions?

Hindu-raya-suratrana — 'Hindu Sultans'.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who rediscovered Hampi, when, and who photographed and conserved it?

Colin Mackenzie, the first Surveyor General of India, in 1800. Alexander Greenlaw took the first detailed photographs; John Marshall began conservation.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

The four Vijayanagara dynasties in order, with years?

Sangama 1336–1485 · Saluva 1485–1505 · Tuluva 1505–1570 · Aravidu 1570–1650.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Founders of the four Vijayanagara dynasties?

Sangama — Harihara & Bukka · Saluva — Saluva Narasimha · Tuluva — Vira Narasimha · Aravidu — Tirumala Raya.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Chronological order: Harihara I, Krishnadevaraya, Deva Raya II?

Harihara I → Deva Raya II → Krishnadevaraya.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who were Sayana and Madhava?

Learned commentators on the Vedas and ministers under Bukka.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What did Deva Raya I build, and what happened with Firuz Shah Bahmani?

Built the Hiriya Canal, drawing Tungabhadra water to the valley. He was first defeated by Firuz Shah Bahmani (giving his daughter and Bankapur as dowry), then later defeated him.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who was the greatest Sangama ruler, and which envoy visited him?

Deva Raya II. The Persian envoy of Shah Rukh, Abdur Razzaq, visited his court. He built the Anantaraj Sagar tank.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Which Telugu poet lived in Deva Raya II's court, and what did he write?

Srinatha, who wrote Shringara Naishadham.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who landed at Calicut in 1498, and during which dynasty?

Vasco da Gama, during the Saluva period (weak ruler Immadi Narasimha; power with Narasa Nayaka).

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Krishnadevaraya — birth date, parents, and who put him on the throne?

Born 17 January 1471; father Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, mother Nagaladevi. Placed on the throne by Saluva Timma, chief minister of Vira Narasimha.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Krishnadevaraya's campaigns 1510, 1512, 1513, 1520?

1510 defeated Mahmud Shah of Bidar · 1512 took the Raichur gate and Gulbarga fort · 1513 defeated the Gajapatis of Odisha · 1520 defeated Golconda and captured Warangal.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Battle of Raichur, 1520 — against whom, and what was notable?

Against Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur, recovering the Raichur Doab (between Krishna and Tungabhadra). He used Portuguese musketeers, and demarcated the Krishna as his northern boundary.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Krishnadevaraya's three main titles?

Andhra Bhoja / Abhinava Bhoja · Andhra Pitamaha · Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya (restorer of the Bidar kingdom).

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Which city did Krishnadevaraya found, and after whom?

Nagalapuram, named after his mother Nagaladevi.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Krishnadevaraya's Telugu and Sanskrit works?

Amuktamalyada in Telugu — on statecraft, telling of Ranganatha's wedding to the poetess Andal ('one who wears and gives away the garland'). Jambavati Kalyanam — a Sanskrit drama.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who were the Ashtadiggajas?

The 8 great Telugu poets in Krishnadevaraya's court — his reign is the Golden Age of Telugu literature. They include Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana, Dhurjati, Pingali Surana and Tenali Ramakrishna.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What did Tenali Ramakrishna write?

Panduranga Mahatyam.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

How did Babur describe Krishnadevaraya?

In the Baburnama, as the most powerful ruler of India.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

When did Krishnadevaraya die, and who succeeded him?

17 October 1529; succeeded by his brother Achyuta Deva Raya.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who really held power before Talikota, and under which nominal ruler?

Aliya Rama Raya, Krishnadevaraya's son-in-law, acting as regent for the nominal emperor Sadashiva Raya.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Battle of Talikota — year, other names, and why those names?

1565. Also called Rakshasi-Tangadi or Bannihatti, because the fighting took place between the villages of Rakshasi and Tangadi.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Which four sultanates formed the 'Muslim Confederacy', and which stayed out?

Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bidar. Berar did not join, because of its rivalry with Ahmadnagar.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What was the result of Talikota?

Vijayanagara was crushed; Hampi was sacked and never recovered — the end of the last great empire of South India.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who founded the Aravidu dynasty, and where did the capital move?

Tirumala Raya, ruling in the name of Sadashiva Raya. The capital shifted to Penukonda, then Chandragiri. Last ruler: Sri Ranga III.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara territorial hierarchy?

Rajya (province) → Mandalam → Nadu / Sthala → Grama (village). Six provinces, each under a Naik (governor).

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What was the Nayankara / Amara-Nayaka system?

Military commanders (Amara-Nayakas) were granted territories to govern, tax and maintain troops on, under the Raya's supreme authority. It flourished under Krishnadevaraya.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What was 'Amaram'?

The land granted to an Amara-Nayaka — a military fief.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who were the Ayagars?

The 12 hereditary village officers — accountants, watchmen, weights-men, officers of forced labour — who ran each Vijayanagara village as an independent unit.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Who was the Mahanayakacharya?

The officer who was the contact point between the villages and the central administration.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara's main coin?

The gold Varaha, called Pagoda by foreign travellers.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What was the status of women in Vijayanagara, per Nuniz?

High — active in political, social and literary life, educated and trained in wrestling, weapons, music and fine arts. Nuniz records women as astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers. But slavery was not banned.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Name the three zones of the city of Hampi.

The Royal Centre (south-west, near the river), the Sacred Centre (temples), and the residential Urban Core.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Virupaksha Temple — deity, and who built what?

Dedicated to Lord Shiva as Virupaksha ('oblique-eyed'). Oldest and principal temple at Hampi, pre-dating the empire; main hall by Lakkan Dandesha, gopuram by Krishnadevaraya.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Vitthala Temple — deity, and its famous feature?

Dedicated to Vishnu (Vitthala). Its Stone Chariot appears on the ₹50 note.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What is the Lotus Mahal, and what is significant about it?

A secular building at Hampi showing clear Indo-Islamic influence — lobed Islamic arches with Indian pyramidal towers. Probably a council chamber or a space for royal women.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What was the Hazara Rama Temple used for?

It was the royal chapel — for the king, not for commoners.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Describe the Mahanavami Dibba.

A huge platform, ~11,000 sq ft and 40 ft high, with relief carvings, used for royal ceremonies. Its superstructure was wooden (now lost) on a stone base.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

On which side of the Tungabhadra is Hampi's Sacred Centre?

South — not north.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What did Abdur Razzaq record about Hampi's defences?

Seven lines of fortification, enclosing not just the city but also agricultural fields and forests.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

What is the distinctive feature of Vijayanagara temples?

The Kalyana Mandapam — a marriage hall where, during festivals, the deity's idol was installed and divine marriages performed.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Nicolo de Conti — country and ruler?

Italy, under Deva Raya I (1420–21). Described Diwali and Navratri and the slavery system.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Abdur Razzaq — country and ruler?

Persia, under Deva Raya II (1443–44). Ambassador of Shah Rukh; described the city's wealth.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Which three Portuguese travellers visited Vijayanagara, and under whom?

Duarte Barbosa (1500–16) and Domingo Paes (1520–22) under Krishnadevaraya; Fernao Nuniz (1534–37), a horse trader, under Achyuta Deva Raya.

10 · Vijayanagara Empire

Which Russian traveller visited the Deccan in this era?

Athanasius Nikitin, during the Bahmani period.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Who founded the Bahmani kingdom, when, and by what other name?

Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah, also known as Hasan Gangu, in 1347. A Turkish officer of Devagiri; claimed descent from the Iranian hero Isfandyar.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

How did the Bahmani kingdom arise?

From a revolt against Muhammad bin Tughlaq — it became the first independent Islamic kingdom in South India.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Bahmani capitals, in order?

Gulbarga first, later shifted to Bidar by Ahmad Shah I.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Bahmani territorial extent?

The northern Deccan, north of the Krishna — stretching from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Which four provinces (Tarafs) did Muhammad Shah create?

Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar. He became first ruler after Hasan Gangu's death in 1358.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Which Bahmani ruler fought Deva Raya I, and which Sufi was he linked to?

Firuz Shah Bahmani; associated with the Sufi saint Gesu Daraz of Gulbarga.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Who was Mahmud Gawan, and what post did he hold?

A brilliant Persian merchant who became Prime Minister (Vakil-us-Sultanat / Peshwa) and general of the Bahmani kingdom in the 15th century.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Mahmud Gawan's two titles?

Khwaja-i-Jahan and Malik-ut-Tujjar ('chief of merchants'), the latter given by Humayun Shah (nicknamed Zalim for his cruelty).

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Mahmud Gawan's achievements?

Captured Chaul and Dabhol from Vijayanagara; conquered up to Kanchi, and Goa. Introduced gunpowder and built a grand Madrasa at Bidar.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

When and how did Mahmud Gawan die, and with what consequence?

Unjustly executed in 1481 by Sultan Muhammad Shah III. The killing triggered factionalism and directly caused the Sultanate's fragmentation into five states.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

What were the Afaqi and Deccani factions?

The two hostile noble groups. Afaqi / Pardesi — Sunni Muslims from Iran and Iraq. Deccani — local Shia Muslims. The split fatally weakened the state.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

The five Deccan successor states and their dynasties?

Bijapur–Adil Shahi · Ahmadnagar–Nizam Shahi · Berar–Imad Shahi · Golconda–Qutb Shahi · Bidar–Barid Shahi.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Founders of the five Deccan sultanates?

Yusuf Adil Shah (Bijapur) · Malik Ahmed (Ahmadnagar) · Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk (Berar) · Quli Qutb Shah (Golconda) · Amir Ali Barid (Bidar).

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Gol Gumbaz — whose tomb, where, and when completed?

Tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah, seventh Adil Shahi Sultan, at Vijayapura (formerly Bijapur), Karnataka, completed 1656.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

What is Gol Gumbaz famous for, and who was its architect?

Its Whispering Gallery; one of the largest single-chamber structures in the world and the second-largest dome. Architect: Yakut of Dabul. The dome rests on eight intersecting arches.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Which monument is formally called the 'Taj Mahal of the South'?

Ibrahim Rauza at Bijapur — an inspiration for the Taj Mahal.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Which Deccan ruler made Dakhini the court language?

Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur, replacing Persian.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Who founded Hyderabad, and under what earlier name?

Quli Qutb Shah, originally as Bhagyanagar (after Bhagmati). He built the Charminar.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Who originally built Golconda Fort, and what is the region famous for?

Originally built by the Kakatiyas, later fortified by the Qutb Shahis. Famous for its diamond mines — the Kohinoor came from the Kollur mine.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

When did Aurangzeb annex Bijapur and Golconda?

Bijapur 1686 and Golconda 1687 — the end of the Deccan Sultanates.

11 · Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates

Who built the Sun Temple at Konark? (common Bahmani distractor)

Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty — not the Bahmanis.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Babur's full name, and the title he assumed at Kabul in 1507?

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur; assumed the title Padshah.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Babur's descent — which ancestor on which side?

Timur on his father's side, Genghis Khan on his mother's side. The Mughals preferred the Timurid link and disliked the Mongol name.

12 · Babur & Humayun

When did Babur become ruler of Ferghana, at what age, and succeeding whom?

1494, at the age of 11/12, succeeding his father Umar Shaikh Mirza.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Who drove Babur out of Ferghana and Samarkand, and where did he go?

The Uzbeks under Shaibani Khan. He crossed the Hindu Kush and captured Kabul in 1504.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Why did the Timurid empire decline in the later 15th century?

Internal wars of succession and the custom of partitioning the empire among princes, which let the rising Uzbeks push them out of Transoxiana.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Babur's first conquest in India, and why is it significant?

The frontier fortress of Bhira (and Bajaur) in 1519 — the first time he used gunpowder in the region.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Who commanded Babur's artillery?

Ustad Ali and Mustafa. Babur was the first to use field artillery massively in Indian warfare.

12 · Babur & Humayun

What was Tulughma, and where did Babur learn it?

A war formation learned from the Uzbeks, used first at Panipat — flanking units that swing round to encircle the enemy.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Name the four divisions of Babur's battle formation.

Harawal — centre/vanguard · Jaranghar — left wing · Baranghar — right wing · Tulughma — encircling flankers.

12 · Babur & Humayun

First Battle of Panipat — exact date, opponent, and titles Babur took?

21 April 1526, against Ibrahim Lodi. Babur took the title Qalandar and declared himself 'Emperor of Hindustan'.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Battle of Khanwa — year, opponent, and title taken?

March 1527, against Rana Sanga of Mewar. Babur took the title Ghazi and first gave the slogan of Jihad.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Battle of Chanderi — year and opponent?

1528, against Medini Rai.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Battle of Ghaghra — year and opponents?

1529, against Mahmud Lodi and the Afghans. Nusrat Shah of Bengal fought for Mahmud Lodi; Babur won.

12 · Babur & Humayun

When and where did Babur die, and where is he buried?

26 December 1530 at Agra, aged ~47. First buried at Aram Bagh (Ram Bagh), Agra, then moved to Kabul (Bagh-e-Babur) — the first Mughal buried outside India.

12 · Babur & Humayun

What is a Charbagh, and who introduced it to India?

The four-part paradise garden divided by walkways or water channels — introduced by Babur, who laid out the Ram Bagh at Agra. It peaks in the Taj Mahal.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Baburnama — original language, and its Persian and English translators?

Written in Turkish (Chagatai); translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and into English by Madam (Annette) Beveridge. Also called Tuzuk-i-Baburi.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Humayun's two reigns, and what his name means?

1530–1540 and 1555–1556. His name means 'fortune', though he was the most unfortunate Mughal.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Humayun's three brothers and what each received?

Kamran — Kabul and Kandahar (and Punjab) · Askari — Sambhal · Hindal — Alwar. Dividing the empire was a great blunder.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Who sent Humayun a rakhi, and against whom?

Rani Karnavati of Mewar, seeking protection against Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.

12 · Babur & Humayun

What was Dinpanah, and where was it built?

Humayun's second capital, 1533, meaning 'refuge of the faith' — built on the mound of ancient Indraprastha, today's Purana Qila area. Sher Shah continued it as Shergarh.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Who was Hindu Beg?

A Central Asian Turkish noble ('Hindu' is a name, not a religion) who served as a provincial governor (Jaunpur/Oudh) under Humayun.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Which two Persian painters did Humayun bring, and what did that found?

Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, brought from Iran after his exile — founding the Mughal school of painting.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Battle of Chausa — year and what happened?

1539. Sher Khan's surprise night attack along the Ganga destroyed the Mughal army; Humayun escaped by swimming across on an inflated water-skin.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Battle of Kannauj / Bilgram — year, other name, and result?

1540, also called the 'Battle of the Ganges'. Complete defeat; Humayun lost the empire and went into 15 years of exile, taking refuge with the Safavids of Iran.

12 · Babur & Humayun

How and when did Humayun regain and then lose the throne?

Defeated the Afghans and recovered the throne in 1555; died six months later, in 1556, after falling from the staircase of his library.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Who wrote the Humayun-Nama?

His sister, Gulbadan Begum.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Humayun's Tomb — who commissioned it and who was the architect?

Commissioned by his widow Bega Begum (Haji Begum) in the 1560s; architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyath.

12 · Babur & Humayun

Why is Humayun's Tomb historically important?

The first monumental charbagh garden-tomb (rauza) in India and the first mature Mughal building. It introduced the double dome and the octagonal hasht-bihisht plan — the direct prototype of the Taj Mahal. Sometimes called the 'dormitory of the House of Timur.'

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Sher Shah's original name, father, and father's jagir?

Original name Farid; son of Hasan Khan, jagirdar of Sasaram (Bihar). Ibrahim Lodi had transferred the jagir to him.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

How did Farid get the title 'Sher Khan'?

For killing a tiger, under the Afghan rule of Bihar. He assumed the title Sher Shah after Chausa.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

The Sur dynasty is also called…

The 'Second Afghan Empire' — the first being the Lodis.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Sher Shah's conquests, and what his empire excluded?

Conquered Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab, Sindh. His empire covered all North India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir and Nepal.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

How long did Sher Shah rule, how long the dynasty, and how did he die?

He ruled 5 years (1540–45); the dynasty lasted 15 years. He died in 1545 at Kalinjar in a gunpowder explosion.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Who succeeded Sher Shah?

His son Jalal Khan, who took the title Islam Shah Suri.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Where is Sher Shah's tomb, and what is notable about it?

Sasaram, Bihar — set in the middle of an artificial lake, the finest example of Afghan/Sur architecture, built in his own lifetime.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Why is Sher Shah called the 'forerunner of Akbar'?

His administrative system became the model for Akbar's consolidation — Akbar's revenue minister Todar Mal had previously served under Sher Shah.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Sher Shah's four ministers and their portfolios?

Diwan-i-Wizarat (Wazir) — revenue & finance · Diwan-i-Ariz — army · Diwan-i-Risalat — foreign affairs · Diwan-i-Insha — communications.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Which measuring yard did Sher Shah use?

The Gaz-i-Sikandari, inherited from Sikandar Lodi.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

How did Sher Shah classify land, and what share did the state take?

Into three grades — good, middle and bad. The state took one-third of the average produce, payable in cash or crop.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

What were Patta and Qabuliyat?

Patta — a title deed stating the peasant's holding and dues. Qabuliyat — the deed of agreement. Together they defined peasants' rights and taxes.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Which coins did Sher Shah introduce?

The silver Rupiya — ancestor of the rupee — and the copper Dam, which stayed in circulation until 1835. He also fixed standard weights and measures.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

What did Sher Shah call the Grand Trunk Road, and which two points did it connect?

Sadak-i-Azam — connecting Sonargaon (Bengal / modern Bangladesh) to Peshawar.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

What were sarais?

Rest houses built along Sher Shah's roads, providing food, water and lodging.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Sher Shah's four major highways?

Sonargaon–Sindh · Agra–Berhampur · Jodhpur–Chittor · Lahore–Multan.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Which two buildings did Sher Shah construct?

The Qila-i-Kuhna mosque inside the old fort of Delhi (Purana Qila), and the Rohtasgarh fort.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Which reform did Sher Shah borrow from Alauddin Khalji?

The branding of horses (dagh). He also restructured the police, and crime fell sharply.

13 · Sur Dynasty — Sher Shah

Which poet was Sher Shah's contemporary, and what did he compose?

Malik Muhammad Jayasi, who composed the Padmavat.

14 · Akbar

Akbar's full name and parents?

Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar; son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum.

14 · Akbar

At what age, in which year and at which place did Akbar ascend?

At 13, in 1556, at Kalanaur (Punjab).

14 · Akbar

Second Battle of Panipat — year, who led Akbar's forces, and who was defeated?

1556. Led by Bairam Khan, defeating Hemu (Hemachandra Vikramaditya), the Hindu general/wazir of Muhammad Adil Shah. Hemu was struck in the eye by an arrow, captured and killed.

14 · Akbar

Who was Akbar's regent, for how long, and what happened to him?

Bairam Khan, his tutor, for the first five years. Akbar removed him and sent him to Mecca; he was killed by an Afghan on the way.

14 · Akbar

When did Akbar die, and where is he buried?

1605; buried at Sikandra, near Agra.

14 · Akbar

Whom did Akbar defeat in 1561?

Baz Bahadur, the musician-Sultan of Malwa.

14 · Akbar

Whom did Akbar marry in 1562, and what was her later title?

Harka Bai, daughter of Raja Bharmal (Kachhwaha of Amber). Later titled Mariam-uz-Zamani after Prince Salim's birth.

14 · Akbar

Garha Katanga campaign — year, Mughal general, and defender?

1565. General Asaf Khan attacked; defended by Rani Durgavati of Gondwana.

14 · Akbar

Siege of Chittor — year, defenders, and its significance?

1568. Rana Udai Singh withdrew; defended by Jaimal and Patta (Fatta). Its fall broke the backbone of Sisodia resistance. Akbar put statues of the two defenders at the gates of Agra Fort.

14 · Akbar

Ranthambore — year and who held it?

1569, held by the Hada Rajputs under Surjan Hada.

14 · Akbar

Gujarat — years, ruler defeated, and what commemorates it?

1572–73, defeating Muzaffar Shah III. Economically vital for sea access; commemorated by the Buland Darwaza.

14 · Akbar

Battle of Haldighati — year, Mughal commander, opponent, result?

1576. Mughal army led by Raja Man Singh (with Asaf Khan) against Maharana Pratap. Indecisive — Pratap escaped to the hills and continued guerrilla war, never surrendering. Bengal was also annexed in 1576.

14 · Akbar

When was Kashmir annexed, by whom, and what did Akbar call it?

1586; campaign led by Qasim Khan and Bhagwant Das, defeating the Chak dynasty. Akbar called it his 'private garden.'

14 · Akbar

Akbar's last campaign — year, place, ruler?

Asirgarh (Khandesh), 1601, against Miran Bahadur Shah. Prince Salim revolted during this time.

14 · Akbar

How did Akbar win over the Rajputs?

Through matrimonial alliance and high office, inducting them into Mughal service on par with Mughal nobility.

14 · Akbar

Which Rajputs held senior Mughal positions, and what mansab did Man Singh hold?

Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagwan Das. Man Singh held a mansab of 7,000 (Sapt Hazari). Rajputs served the Mughals for four generations.

14 · Akbar

Which was the only major Rajput house to defy Mughal power for a prolonged period?

The Sisodiyas of Mewar. Amber (Kachhwaha), Marwar (Rathore), Bikaner and Jaisalmer all submitted.

14 · Akbar

When and how did Mewar finally settle with the Mughals?

Under Jahangir in 1615 (Rana Amar Singh), on honourable terms — the Sisodiyas got their ancestral lands back as watan jagirs and were exempted from personal attendance at court.

14 · Akbar

Which tribal chief did Akbar make a mansabdar?

The Gakkhar chief Kamal Khan.

14 · Akbar

When did Akbar abolish the pilgrimage tax and the jizya?

Pilgrimage tax 1563; jizya 1564.

14 · Akbar

What was the Ibadat Khana, when and where was it built?

The House of Worship, built 1575 at Fatehpur Sikri — a hall for religious debates and discussions, not a mosque or tomb. He gathered scholars of Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.

14 · Akbar

What was the Mahzar, and in which year?

1579 — a declaration giving Akbar the right to decide disputed points of Islamic law. He wanted to be the Insan-i-Kamil, the perfect man.

14 · Akbar

Din-i-Ilahi — year, nature, and how many followers?

1582. A syncretic code drawing on Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism; believed in one God, endorsed no philosophy. Only about 15 followers, including Birbal — the only prominent Hindu to adopt it. Akbar compelled no one.

14 · Akbar

What was Sulh-i-Kul?

'Peace with all' / universal tolerance — the centrepiece of Akbar's religious policy: equal treatment of all subjects regardless of faith.

14 · Akbar

When did Akbar prohibit forced sati, and when was there a total ban?

Akbar prohibited forced sati in 1582. Aurangzeb issued a total ban in 1663.

14 · Akbar

When did the first Jesuit missionaries reach Akbar's court?

1580.

14 · Akbar

Who was the first Englishman to reach India, when, and what was he called?

Ralph Fitch, 1585, at Akbar's court — the 'pioneer' or 'torch-bearer' Englishman.

14 · Akbar

When and by whom was tobacco introduced in India?

By the Portuguese, in 1604, at Akbar's court. Akbar was also emperor when the English East India Company was founded (1600).

14 · Akbar

Who devised the Zabt / Dahsala system, and when was it completed?

Raja Todar Mal, Akbar's finance minister, completed in 1580. Also called Bandobast. It gave a scientific basis to Sher Shah's system.

14 · Akbar

On what basis was revenue fixed under Zabt?

On the average yield of the previous ten years — calculated from crop yields, prevailing market prices and the area actually cultivated.

14 · Akbar

Akbar's four land classes and their cultivation cycles?

Polaj — every year · Parauti (Parti) — fallow 1–2 years · Chachar — fallow 3–4 years · Banjar — uncultivated 5 years or more.

14 · Akbar

Where did Zabt work, and where did it not?

Worked in the densely surveyed core provinces, roughly Lahore to Allahabad, plus Malwa and Gujarat. It did not run in Bengal and Gujarat as newly conquered territories, or in distant Deccan, volatile frontiers and tribal zones — there Nasaq (estimation) or crop-sharing continued.

14 · Akbar

When was the Mansabdari system introduced, and what did it organise?

1571. A single hierarchy organising both the military and the civil nobility. Every officer got a numerical rank (mansab) fixing status, salary and cavalry obligation.

14 · Akbar

What did Zat determine?

The noble's personal rank — his position in the hierarchy and his personal salary.

14 · Akbar

What did Sawar determine?

The number of cavalrymen/horsemen he had to maintain. Every sawar had to keep at least two horses.

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Mansab ranks — lowest and highest?

Lowest 10; highest 5,000 for nobles, raised to 7,000–10,000 for princes of royal blood.

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Was the mansab hereditary? Who made appointments?

No — all appointments, promotions and dismissals were made directly by the emperor.

14 · Akbar

Did mansabdars have to live in their jagirs?

No. They were frequently transferred and often posted far away, so they could not build local power bases; agents collected the revenue for them.

14 · Akbar

Birbal — original name and title?

Mahesh Das; Akbar gave him the title Kavipriya. The only Hindu to join Din-i-Ilahi.

14 · Akbar

Tansen — original name, birthplace, and titles?

Ramtanu Pandey; birthplace Gwalior. Titles: Miyan (from Akbar) and Kanthabharan Vanivilas. Composed Miyan ki Malhar, Sarang, Bhairav, Rageshwari; played the Rudraveena/Rabab.

14 · Akbar

Name all nine Navratnas.

Birbal, Tansen, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Raja Man Singh, Raja Todar Mal, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mulla Do Pyaza, Fakir Aziuddin.

14 · Akbar

Which forts did Akbar build?

Agra Fort (1565), Lahore Fort (1566), Allahabad Fort (1585).

14 · Akbar

Fatehpur Sikri — when begun, why named, and in honour of whom?

Begun c. 1569/1571 near Agra, in red sandstone. Named 'city of victory' after the Gujarat conquest, and built in honour of the Sufi saint Salim Chishti, who foretold the birth of his heir.

14 · Akbar

Buland Darwaza — height, and which victory does it commemorate?

54 m — the highest and most imposing gateway in the world, commemorating the Gujarat victory of 1572–73. Main entrance to the Jama Masjid complex.

14 · Akbar

Panch Mahal — what is it modelled on?

A five-storeyed columnar pleasure pavilion whose progressively diminishing terraces are modelled on a Buddhist vihara.

14 · Akbar

Diwan-i-Aam vs Diwan-i-Khas?

Diwan-i-Aam — hall of public audience, where the emperor heard petitions. Diwan-i-Khas — hall of private audience for elite nobles.

14 · Akbar

Akbar's three capital moves?

1571 Agra → Fatehpur Sikri · 1585 Sikri → Lahore · 1598 Lahore → Agra.

14 · Akbar

Which city did Akbar found that was later renamed Murshidabad?

Maqsudabad.

14 · Akbar

Akbar's Tomb at Sikandra — who completed it, and how does it break convention?

Planned by Akbar, completed 1605–1613 by Jahangir. It deviates from the hasht-bihisht plan — a five-tiered pyramidal structure with no main dome, topped with open chhatris.

14 · Akbar

Who were Akbar's leading painters, and what is his reign called in literature?

Daswant and Basawan. His reign is called the 'Golden Age of Hindi Literature.'

14 · Akbar

Akbarnama — author, language, and what is in each volume?

Abul Fazl, in Persian, in three volumes: Vol 1 — Akbar's ancestors and birth · Vol 2 — events of his reign to the 46th year · Vol 3 — Ain-i-Akbari, on administration, army, revenues, geography and statistics.

14 · Akbar

What was the Maktab Khana?

Akbar's translation bureau at Fatehpur Sikri, for translating Sanskrit into Persian.

14 · Akbar

What is the Razmnama?

The Mahabharata translated into Persian ('Book of War'), illustrated with miniatures. Badayuni translated the Ramayana; Faizi translated Lilavati.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Jahangir's early name, parents, and what his title means?

Early name Salim (Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim); son of Akbar and Harka Bai (Mariam-uz-Zamani). Jahangir = 'Conqueror of the World'.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What was the Zanjir-i-Adal?

Jahangir's Chain of Justice at Agra Fort, for anyone seeking royal justice.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Jahangir's capital, and where was he buried?

Capital Lahore; died 1627, buried at Shahdara, Lahore.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who was Jagat Gosai, and whose mother was she?

A Rathore princess of Marwar (Jodha Bai) — mother of Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan).

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Nur Jahan — birth name, previous marriage, and year of marriage to Jahangir?

Born Mehr-un-Nisa; widow of Sher Afghan, a Persian nobleman of Bengal. Married Jahangir in 1611.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Nur Jahan's three titles, and what power did she hold?

Nur Mahal (light of the palace) → Nur Jahan (light of the world) → Badshah Begum. She was effectively co-ruler and struck coins in her own name.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which Sikh Guru did Jahangir execute, when, and why?

Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Guru, in 1606, for sheltering Jahangir's rebellious son Prince Khusrau.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who was William Hawkins, when did he arrive, and what rank did he get?

Envoy of King James I of England, arrived 1608–09 to start trading; given a mansab of 400.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who was Sir Thomas Roe, and when did he arrive?

Ambassador of King James I, arrived 1615.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which Italian traveller came during Jahangir's reign?

Pietro della Valle.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What did Jahangir prohibit?

Tobacco in India.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which revolt did Jahangir face from his own commander?

Mahabat Khan's revolt. He also faced revolts from his son Shah Jahan.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Whose reign is the Golden Age of Mughal painting, and what did he claim?

Jahangir's. He was himself a painter and claimed that if one face were painted by several artists, he could tell which artist had painted which eye or eyebrow.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Jahangir's two famous court painters?

Ustad Mansur and Abul Hasan.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah — built by whom, for whom, and what is its significance?

Built by Nur Jahan for her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg, Agra, 1622–28. The first use of pietra dura in India and the transition from red sandstone to white marble. Nicknamed the 'Baby Taj.'

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which gardens did Jahangir build?

Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir; and Sarai Nurmahal at Jalandhar, Punjab (under Nur Jahan's patronage).

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Jahangir's autobiography — title and language?

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Jahangirnama), in Persian — with observations on nature, flora, fauna and his experiments. Mutamid Khan wrote Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Shah Jahan — birth year and place, childhood name?

Born 1593 at Lahore; childhood name Khurram. Son of Jahangir and Jagat Gosai.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Whom did Shah Jahan marry in 1612, and what was she later called?

Arjumand Bano Begum, daughter of Asaf Khan (Nur Jahan's brother) — later Mumtaz Mahal. She died in 1631.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Shah Jahan's two epithets?

The 'Prince of Builders'; and in his own court chronicles, Insan-i-Kamil — 'the perfect man', a Sufi concept projecting him as a divinely guided ideal ruler.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

When did Shah Jahan destroy the Portuguese settlement, and where?

1631/1632, at Hugli.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

When did Shah Jahan annex Ahmadnagar, and which four southern provinces did he annex?

1636/1637 for Ahmadnagar. The four provinces: Khandesh, Berar, Telangana and Daulatabad.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Why did Kandahar matter, and when was it lost?

It controlled the land routes between Kabul and Herat — the north-western gateway — and was a fortified outpost against the Safavids and Uzbeks. Lost permanently in 1649.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What administrative unit did Shah Jahan introduce?

Chakla, between the Subah and the Pargana. Hierarchy: Subah → Chakla → Pargana.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Whom did Shah Jahan name successor in 1642, and with what title?

Dara Shikoh, with the title Shahzada-e-Buland Iqbal ('prince of high fortune').

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Taj Mahal — years, architect, and UNESCO year?

Begun 1632 (construction from 1631), completed 1653. Architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori. UNESCO World Heritage Site, 1983. Inspired by Humayun's Tomb.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which two techniques did the Taj Mahal popularise?

Pietra dura (inlay of semi-precious stone in marble) and the perfected double dome.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

When was Shahjahanabad built?

1638 — the new capital in Delhi; the capital shifted from Agra.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Red Fort — start and end years, how many years, material, architect?

Begun 1639, completed 1648 — 9 years. Red sandstone; modelled on Akbar's Agra Fort; architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What stands inside the Red Fort?

Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Rang Mahal (palace of mirrors) and the Moti Masjid.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Jama Masjid, Delhi — years and material?

1650–1656, red sandstone and white marble; one of India's largest mosques.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which Moti Masjid did Shah Jahan build, and which did Aurangzeb build?

Shah Jahan — Moti Masjid in Agra Fort. Aurangzeb — Moti Masjid in the Red Fort, Delhi (1659–60).

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which Shalimar garden is Shah Jahan's?

Shalimar Gardens, Lahore (1641). The Kashmir Shalimar Bagh is Jahangir's.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

The Peacock Throne — what was it, and who took it?

Takht-i-Taus — ~1,100 kg of gold, encrusted with diamonds, emeralds and pearls, mounted with the Kohinoor. Looted by Nadir Shah in 1739.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who wrote Char Chaman, and who wrote the Padshahnama?

Chandrabhan Brahmin wrote Char Chaman (on the Mughal nobility). Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote the Padshahnama.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Three foreign travellers under Shah Jahan?

François Bernier (France) — Travels in the Mogul Empire, described the famine · Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (France) — a diamond merchant · Niccolao Manucci (Italy).

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who introduced European painting in India, and under whom?

The Portuguese, during Shah Jahan's reign.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Shah Jahan's four sons and their governorships?

Dara Shikoh (heir apparent) · Shuja (Bengal) · Aurangzeb (Deccan) · Murad Baksh (Malwa and Gujarat).

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

The three battles of the war of succession?

Dharmat (1658) — Aurangzeb defeated the imperial army · Samugarh (1658) — the decisive battle, Aurangzeb beat Dara Shikoh · Deorai (1659) — Dara finally defeated, later executed.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What did Dara Shikoh translate, and under what title?

The Upanishads into Persian, as Sirr-i-Akbar.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Where and when was Shah Jahan imprisoned and by whom, and when did he die?

In Agra Fort (Musamman Burj) from 1658 by Aurangzeb; nursed by his daughter Jahanara; died there in 1666. Buried next to Mumtaz Mahal in the Taj Mahal.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb's imperial title and coronation years?

Made himself Padshah in 1658; actual coronation 1659. Title: Alamgir — 'Conqueror of the World'.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Why was Aurangzeb called Zinda Pir?

The 'living saint' — for his austere life; he supported himself by copying the Quran and stitching caps.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb's place in the dynasty?

The last of the 'Great Mughals'. The empire reached its greatest territorial extent under him; his death in 1707 begins the irreversible decline.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which Sikh Guru did Aurangzeb execute, when, where and why?

Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru, in 1675, at Chandni Chowk, Delhi — for refusing to convert and defending the religious freedom of Kashmiri Pandits.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

When did Aurangzeb re-impose jizya?

1679 — along with the pilgrim tax, both abolished by Akbar in 1564.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who were the Muhtasib?

Censors of public morals, appointed by Aurangzeb to enforce Islamic law.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What is the Fatawa-i-Alamgiri?

A digest of Islamic law commissioned by Aurangzeb, compiled by ~500 scholars from Medina, Baghdad and India — covering ethics, military strategy, economic policy, justice and punishment.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What did Aurangzeb ban, despite his own talent?

Music and dance; he dismissed court artists — though he was an accomplished veena player. He also discontinued Dasara and Muharram, and dismissed royal astronomers and astrologers.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

When did Aurangzeb move to the Deccan, and for how long?

1681/1682 — he spent his last 25 years there, campaigning against the Marathas and Deccan Sultanates.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What was the effect of Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns on the treasury?

They drained it — they did not strengthen Mughal finances. His absence from Delhi also weakened central administration.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Where did Aurangzeb die, and where is he buried?

Died 1707 at Ahmadnagar / Devagiri (Aurangabad); buried at Khuldabad, near Daulatabad, Maharashtra.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which three communities became enemies of the empire under Aurangzeb?

Rajputs, Marathas and Sikhs — the standard explanation for the decline.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

What did Aurangzeb call Shivaji, and what title did he give him?

Called him a 'mountain rat'; gave him the title Raja, acknowledging his guerrilla skill.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Whom did Aurangzeb send against Shivaji in 1660, and who signed the 1665 treaty?

Shaista Khan (his maternal uncle) in 1660. The Treaty of Purandar (1665) was signed on his behalf by Raja Jai Singh I of Amber.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who was Gemelli-Careri?

An Italian physician who visited India under Aurangzeb and saw him in 1695 at the age of 77.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Bibi ka Maqbara — built by whom, for whom, and what is it called?

Built by Azam Shah (Aurangzeb's son) at Aurangabad, in memory of his mother Dilras Banu Begum (Rabia-ud-Durrani). Known as the 'Taj of the Deccan' — a copy of the Taj Mahal.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Moti Masjid, Red Fort — who built it, when and for whom?

Aurangzeb, 1659–60, white marble — his private prayer chamber, for his second wife Nawab Bai. Three arches, two aisles.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which mosque did Aurangzeb build at Lahore, and when?

The Badshahi Mosque, 1673.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Who wrote Tarikh-i-Dilkusha?

The historian Bhimsen, during Aurangzeb's reign.

15 · Jahangir · Shah Jahan · Aurangzeb

Which three monuments carry Taj-related nicknames?

Bibi ka Maqbara — 'Taj of the Deccan' · Ibrahim Rauza, Bijapur — 'Taj Mahal of the South' · Itimad-ud-Daulah, Agra — 'Baby Taj'.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Who was the Diwan-i-Ala?

Head of revenue administration under the Mughals.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Who was the Mir Bakhshi, and what did he do?

Head of the military department and supreme paymaster — he maintained the mansabdari system, oversaw recruitment, inspected cavalry horses, and managed salaries and promotions.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Mir Saman and Sadr-us-Sudur?

Mir Saman — royal household and karkhanas. Sadr-us-Sudur — judicial and religious affairs, charity.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Qazi-ul-Quzat and Kotwal?

Qazi-ul-Quzat — chief judge. Kotwal — chief of city police.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Faujdar, Shiqdar, Qanungo, Amil?

Faujdar — law and order at Sarkar (district) level · Shiqdar — police chief at Pargana level · Qanungo — revenue assessor/record keeper at Pargana level · Amil / Amalguzar — land revenue collection.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Mughal territorial hierarchy and the head of each unit?

Subah (province) — Subedar/Nizam · Sarkar (district) — Faujdar · Pargana (taluka) — Shiqdar & Amil · Gram (village) — Muqaddam.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Which of these was NOT a Mughal Subah capital: Lahore, Allahabad, Ajmer, Bidar?

Bidar — it was the Bahmani and later Barid Shahi capital, annexed much later.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Name the four ethnic groups of the Mughal nobility.

Turanis (Central Asians), Iranis (Persians), Afghans, and Shaikhzadas / Hindustanis (indigenous Indian Muslims).

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Who were the Shaikhzadas, and which famous kingmakers came from them?

Indigenous Indian Muslims — converts or descendants of early settlers — holding administrative posts. The Sayyid Brothers were of this faction.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Rajas vs Zamindars under the Mughals?

Rajas — autonomous chiefs governing broader regions, higher political and social status, often mansabdars with military obligations. Zamindars — local landholders whose hereditary right was to collect land revenue for the state, retaining a share.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

What was a watan jagir?

A Rajput chief's own ancestral homeland, granted back to him as an assignment, giving considerable autonomy. Amber and Jodhpur families claimed the subadari of rich provinces like Gujarat and Malwa.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Which three traditions blend in Mughal architecture?

Persian (bulbous domes, arches, iwans — large vaulted portals), Islamic/Turkish (minarets, calligraphy), and indigenous Indian (chhatris, brackets, kalash).

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Which emperor favoured red sandstone, and which white marble?

Red sandstone — Akbar (and Sher Shah). White marble — Shah Jahan.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Purana Qila — builders and materials?

Built by Humayun and Sher Shah. Double-storeyed gates (Bara Darwaza, Humayun Darwaza) of red sandstone with white marble and blue-glaze inlay. Traditionally on the site of Indraprastha.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Who introduced and who perfected the double dome in India?

Introduced at Humayun's Tomb; perfected and popularised by Shah Jahan.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

Who first used and who popularised pietra dura?

First used at Itimad-ud-Daulah's tomb (Nur Jahan); popularised by Shah Jahan.

16 · Mughal Admin & Culture

What is the hasht-bihisht plan, and which tomb breaks it?

'Eight paradises' — the standard square, nine-part tomb plan. Akbar's Tomb at Sikandra breaks it: pyramidal, five-tiered, domeless.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Six causes of the Mughal decline?

Aurangzeb's religious and Deccan policies · weak successors and a demoralised army · financial ruin from continuous wars · invasions of Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali · rise of Marathas, Sikhs and Jats · independent successor states.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Aurangzeb's three sons and their bases; who won?

Muazzam (Kabul), Azam Shah (Gujarat), Kam Bakhsh (Deccan). Muazzam killed his brothers and ruled as Bahadur Shah I.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

What did Bahadur Shah I do that changed Maratha history?

He released Shahu from Mughal captivity — triggering the Maratha civil war with Tarabai.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Jahandar Shah — who helped him, and what system did he introduce?

Zulfiqar Khan helped him. He abolished jizya and introduced the Ijaradari system (revenue farming).

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Who were the Sayyid Brothers, and what were they called?

Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan — the 'Kingmakers'. They put Farrukhsiyar on the throne and later killed him.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

What was the Golden Farman, its year, terms and emperor?

1717, issued by Farrukhsiyar to the English East India Company — duty-free trade in Bengal for ₹3,000 a year, plus the right to issue dastaks (trade passes).

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

How and when did Farrukhsiyar die?

Blinded, imprisoned and strangled by the Sayyid Brothers in 1719.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Which emperor was nicknamed 'Rangeela', and what was his real name?

Muhammad Shah (1719–48); real name Roshan Akhtar — for his luxurious life. He killed the Sayyid Brothers with the Nizam's help.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Which two provinces became independent under Muhammad Shah?

Hyderabad under Nizam-ul-Mulk (Chin Qulich Khan / Asaf Jah I) and Awadh under Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk).

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Which two later Mughals were murdered by their own nobles?

Farrukhsiyar (1719) by the Sayyid Brothers, and Alamgir II (1759) by his wazir Imad-ul-Mulk.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Shah Alam II — which battle did he lose, and what did he grant?

Lost at Buxar (1764); granted the Diwani of Bengal to the Company in 1765. Later blinded by his nobles.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Which Mughal gave Raja Ram Mohan Roy his title?

Akbar II (1806–37) gave him the title 'Raja'.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Who was the last Mughal emperor, and where was he deported?

Bahadur Shah II (Zafar), deported to Rangoon after the Revolt of 1857.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Nadir Shah — country, battle, year, and what he took?

Ruler of Iran. Defeated Muhammad Shah at the Battle of Karnal, 1739, then sacked Delhi — carrying away the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Who was Nawab of Awadh 1754–75, and which two battles is he linked to?

Shuja-ud-Daulah — allied with Abdali at Panipat III (1761), and with Mir Qasim and Shah Alam II at Buxar (1764), leading to the Treaty of Allahabad.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Who was Siraj-ud-Daulah, and what happened in 1757?

Nawab of Bengal from 1756, maternal grandson of Alivardi Khan. Betrayed by Mir Jafar at the Battle of Plassey, 1757.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Sawai Jai Singh II — which city did he found, when, and who designed it?

Jaipur, 1727, designed by Vidyadhar Bhattacharya on Vastu principles — later called the 'Pink City'. He was given the subadari of Agra in 1722.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

How many Jantar Mantars did Jai Singh II build, and where?

Five (1724–35): Delhi (first built), Jaipur (largest, UNESCO 2010), Varanasi, Ujjain, Mathura.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Who annexed Nagaur, and from where?

The Rathores of Jodhpur (Bakht Singh, Vijay Singh), in the late Mughal period.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Who built Mehrangarh Fort, and in which city?

Rao Jodha, Rathore ruler of Marwar — at Jodhpur, the 'Blue City'.

17 · Later Mughals & the Decline

Who was Maharaja Suraj Mal, what did he build, and what was he called?

The Jat ruler of Bharatpur. Built the Lohagarh Fort ('iron fort'), which withstood British sieges including Lord Lake's in 1805. Called the 'Plato of the Jat tribe.'

18 · Maratha Empire

The two phases of Maratha power?

The Maratha State, 1674–1720, and the Maratha Confederacy, 1720–1818.

18 · Maratha Empire

In which script are most Maratha state documents written?

The Modi script.

18 · Maratha Empire

Who were the Kunbis, and why do they matter?

Peasant-pastoralists (cultivators) who formed the backbone of the Maratha army, supplying infantry and light cavalry. Under Shivaji they became the Mavalis, famous for guerrilla warfare, returning to their fields at harvest.

18 · Maratha Empire

Shivaji's birth — place and date?

Shivneri Fort (near Junnar, Pune) — 19 February 1630 in most modern accounts (6 April 1627 in some older texts). Named after the local deity Goddess Shivai.

18 · Maratha Empire

Shivaji's parents, and who raised him?

Father Shahaji Bhonsle (a general serving Ahmadnagar and Bijapur), mother Jijabai, who shaped his ambition for Swarajya. Brought up at Poona under Dadaji Kondadev.

18 · Maratha Empire

Who was Shivaji's spiritual guru, and what was his capital?

Guru: Samarth Ramdas. Capital: Raigad. He died in 1680.

18 · Maratha Empire

What was Ganimi Kava?

Shivaji's guerrilla warfare — surprise attacks, ambushes, cutting supply lines and rapid retreat into hill forts, exploiting the rugged Sahyadri terrain. He avoided pitched battles in the open.

18 · Maratha Empire

Shivaji's first fort — name, year, age, and new name?

Torna, in 1646, at the age of 16; renamed Prachandagad. Alarmed, the Sultan of Bijapur imprisoned his father Shahaji.

18 · Maratha Empire

Afzal Khan episode — year, place, and weapon?

Battle of Pratapgarh, 10 November 1659. Afzal Khan invited Shivaji to a 'friendship treaty' meeting intending treachery; Shivaji wore hidden armour and killed him with the Wagh Nakh (tiger claws). The leaderless Bijapur army was then routed.

18 · Maratha Empire

What happened in 1662?

The Sultan of Bijapur made a peace treaty, recognising Shivaji as independent ruler of his conquests.

18 · Maratha Empire

Shaista Khan episode — year and outcome?

1663. Aurangzeb's maternal uncle occupied Pune and camped in Lal Mahal, Shivaji's childhood home. Shivaji infiltrated disguised as a marriage procession, attacked at night, and Shaista Khan lost three fingers escaping through a window.

18 · Maratha Empire

When did Shivaji sack Surat, and why?

1664 — to refill his treasury by plundering the wealthy Mughal port.

18 · Maratha Empire

Treaty of Purandar — year, who signed for the Mughals, and terms?

1665, signed by Raja Jai Singh I of Amber on Aurangzeb's behalf. Shivaji surrendered 23 of his 35 forts.

18 · Maratha Empire

What happened at Agra in 1666?

Shivaji visited Aurangzeb's court, was insulted and imprisoned, and famously escaped (legend: hidden in a basket of sweets).

18 · Maratha Empire

Conquest of Kondana / Sinhagad — year and who fought?

1670 — Tanaji Malusare, Shivaji's commander, against Udaybhan Rathod, fort keeper under Jai Singh I. (Earlier under Nilkanth Rao.)

18 · Maratha Empire

Shivaji's coronation — year, place, and titles?

1674 at Raigad, crowned Chhatrapati. Took the title Haindava Dharmoddharak ('protector of the Hindu faith'), asserting a Hindu monarchy free of Mughal and Deccan Sultanate suzerainty.

18 · Maratha Empire

Peshwa — alternative name and portfolio?

Mukhya Pradhan; Prime Minister — finance and general administration.

18 · Maratha Empire

Amatya — alternative name and portfolio?

Majumdar; Finance Minister / accountant; levied the land tax.

18 · Maratha Empire

Sachiv — alternative name and portfolio?

Surnavis / Chitnis; Secretary — royal correspondence and orders.

18 · Maratha Empire

Mantri — alternative name and portfolio?

Waqia-navis / WakeNavis; Interior — intelligence, post and household affairs.

18 · Maratha Empire

Sumant — alternative name and portfolio?

Dabir; Foreign Minister and master of ceremonies.

18 · Maratha Empire

Senapati — alternative name and portfolio?

Sar-i-Naubat; Commander-in-Chief.

18 · Maratha Empire

Panditrao and Nyayadhish?

Panditrao — high priest, religious affairs and charitable grants. Nyayadhish — Chief Justice. These two alone were exempt from serving in war.

18 · Maratha Empire

Which administration inspired Shivaji's reforms?

Malik Ambar's reforms in Ahmadnagar and Deccan practice generally.

18 · Maratha Empire

What replaced Persian under the Marathas, and what dictionary did they compile?

Marathi became the official language; they compiled Raja Vyavahara Kosh, their own statecraft dictionary.

18 · Maratha Empire

Maratha territorial hierarchy?

Three provinces under viceroys → Prants → Parganas → Tarafs; the lowest unit was the village under its headman, the Patel.

18 · Maratha Empire

What system did Shivaji abolish, and what replaced it?

He abolished the Jagirdari system and replaced it with a Ryotwari arrangement, paying officers in cash. He curbed hereditary revenue officials — Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils and Kulkarnis.

18 · Maratha Empire

Shivaji's revenue system was patterned on what?

Malik Ambar's Kathi system — every piece of land measured by a rod (kathi).

18 · Maratha Empire

Chauth — rate and nature?

1/4th (25%) of land revenue — a protection tax, paid to avoid Maratha raids. Levied on territory outside direct Maratha control.

18 · Maratha Empire

Sardeshmukhi — rate and basis?

An additional 10%, claimed on the basis of Shivaji's hereditary right as Sardeshmukh of the Deccan.

18 · Maratha Empire

Who succeeded Shivaji, and how?

Sambhaji (1680–89), his eldest son by Saibai — winning the succession struggle against Rajaram (backed by Soyarabai).

18 · Maratha Empire

What did Sambhaji do that enraged Aurangzeb, and how did he die?

He sheltered Aurangzeb's rebellious son Akbar. He was captured, tortured and executed in 1689; his wife Yesubai and son Shahu were imprisoned.

18 · Maratha Empire

Rajaram — years, and which ministerial post did he create?

1689–1700. He created a ninth post, Pratinidhi (Ashtapradhan + Pratinidhi = 9).

18 · Maratha Empire

Where did Rajaram die, and which capital did the Marathas move to?

Died at Satara (1700), which became the capital after the fall of Jinji (1698). In Oct 1689 the Mughal army under Zulfiqar Khan had attacked Raigad.

18 · Maratha Empire

Which system did Rajaram revive, and with what consequence?

The Jagir / Saranjam system — the origin of the Maratha Confederacy.

18 · Maratha Empire

Who was Tarabai, and what did she do?

Widow of Rajaram; regent for her son Shivaji II, 1700–07. She gave the Maratha state stability in civil and military affairs during the crisis. Later displaced with the help of Balaji Vishwanath.

18 · Maratha Empire

Shahu — whose son, who released him, and what followed?

Son of Sambhaji; released by Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah I, leading to civil war with Tarabai.

18 · Maratha Empire

Battle of Khed — date, parties, result?

12 October 1707 — Shahu defeated Tarabai and occupied Satara.

18 · Maratha Empire

How was the Maratha kingdom split, and how was it settled?

Kolhapur under Tarabai, Satara under Shahu — settled by the Treaty of Warna, 1731.

18 · Maratha Empire

Which community produced the Peshwas, and from which family?

The Chitpavan Brahmanas of the Konkan, of the Bhat family. The office became hereditary and supreme, reducing the Chhatrapati to a titular head; the Peshwas were de facto rulers till 1772.

18 · Maratha Empire

Balaji Vishwanath — years, appointment, and 1719 achievement?

1713–20, the first hereditary Peshwa, appointed by Shahu in 1713. Given the title Senakarte in 1708. Negotiated the 1719 treaty granting the Marathas the right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the Deccan.

18 · Maratha Empire

Baji Rao I — years, popular name, and record?

1720–40; Baji Rao Ballal, eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath, succeeded at 20. He never lost a battle and propagated Hindu Pad Padshahi.

18 · Maratha Empire

Baji Rao I's famous saying?

'Strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves.'

18 · Maratha Empire

Baji Rao I's three big campaigns?

Defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk at Palkhed (1728) · raided Delhi (1737) · captured Bassein from the Portuguese (1739).

18 · Maratha Empire

What did Baji Rao I gain from Chhatrasal?

After defeating Muhammad Khan Bangash for him, he received one-third of Chhatrasal's kingdom (Jhansi, Sagar, Kalpi) and his daughter Mastani.

18 · Maratha Empire

Balaji Baji Rao — popular name, years, and how he died?

Nana Saheb, 1740–61, succeeded at 20. Died in 1761 on hearing that his son Vishwas Rao and cousin Sadashivrao Bhau had died at Panipat.

18 · Maratha Empire

What did the Marathas do in Rajasthan in the 1740s?

Campaigns intensified — extracting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from Jaipur, Jodhpur and Bundi and checking their expansion.

18 · Maratha Empire

Third Battle of Panipat — year, commanders on both sides, and result?

1761. Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau vs Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by Najib-ud-Daula (Rohilla) and Shuja-ud-Daula (Awadh). The Marathas lost.

18 · Maratha Empire

Who was Madhav Rao I?

Peshwa 1761–72 — the eldest surviving member of the family, who became de facto ruler and restored Maratha power. After his death the Peshwaship lost its force.

18 · Maratha Empire

The five houses of the Maratha Confederacy and their seats?

Peshwa — Poona · Raghuji Bhonsle — Berar/Nagpur · Gaekwad — Baroda · Holkar — Indore · Scindia — Gwalior.

18 · Maratha Empire

Which Maratha house was linked to Ujjain?

The Scindias (Sindhias) — Ranoji Sindhia made Ujjain his Malwa headquarters; the capital moved to Gwalior in 1810 under Daulat Rao Scindia.

18 · Maratha Empire

What was the Huzur Daftar?

The Peshwas' secretariat, at Poona.

18 · Maratha Empire

Patils, Kulkarnis and Potdars?

Patils headed villages · Kulkarnis kept village records · Potdars inspected the currency. Deshmukh, Deshpande and Darakhdars were appointed to check corruption.

18 · Maratha Empire

What was the Balute system?

Farmers paid in kind, usually a share of agricultural produce each year after harvest.

18 · Maratha Empire

First Anglo-Maratha War — years, cause, and treaty?

1775–82. Raghunath Rao wanted the Peshwaship; Nana Fadnavis opposed him. Treaties of Surat (1775) and Purandar (1776); British beaten at Wadgaon (1779), then attacked again under Warren Hastings. Ended by the Treaty of Salbai, 1782.

18 · Maratha Empire

Second Anglo-Maratha War — years, key treaty, and commanders?

1803–05. Baji Rao II signed the subsidiary alliance Treaty of Bassein, 1802. British commanders: Arthur Wellesley (Deccan) and General Lake (north). Ended with the Treaty of Deogaon (1803) and Treaty of Rajghat (1805); Cuttack acquired.

18 · Maratha Empire

Third Anglo-Maratha War — years, other name, treaty, and fate of the Peshwa?

1817–18, the 'Pindari War'. Ended by the Treaty of Mandsaur, 1818. The Peshwaship was abolished from 1818; Baji Rao II was captured and sent to Bithoor (Kanpur).

19 · Bhakti Movement

Where and when did the Bhakti movement originate, and when did it peak?

In the 7th century in Tamil country (modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala). It spread to east and north India from the 15th century and peaked between the 15th and 17th centuries.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Saguna vs Nirguna?

Saguna — God with attributes/form. Nirguna — God without attributes/formless.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Name three Saguna and three Nirguna saints.

Saguna: Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai (also Chaitanya, Shankardeva). Nirguna: Kabir, Guru Nanak, Ravidas.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Alvars — deity and number?

Devoted to Vishnu ('immersed' in devotion); there were 12.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Nayanars — deity and number?

Devoted to Shiva; there were 63.

19 · Bhakti Movement

What is the Nalayira Divya Prabandham, and who compiled it?

The 'four thousand divine hymns' of the Alvars — the 'Tamil Veda' — compiled by Nathamuni in the 9th–10th century.

19 · Bhakti Movement

What is the Tirumurai / Tevaram?

The compilation of Nayanar hymns. The Tevaram by Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar is the best-known part.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Who was the only woman Alvar?

Andal. Other notable Alvars: Nammalvar, Periyalvar.

19 · Bhakti Movement

What did the Alvars and Nayanars protest against?

The caste system and Brahmanical dominance — or at least attempted to reform it. They also revived Hinduism against Buddhist and Jain influence, travelling and singing hymns in Tamil.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Adi Shankaracharya — century, birthplace, philosophy?

8th century, born at Kaladi, Kerala. Philosophy: Advaita — absolute non-dualism; Atman and Brahman are identical.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Which four monasteries did Shankaracharya found?

Sringeri (South), Jagannath Puri (East), Dwarka (West), Badrinath (North).

19 · Bhakti Movement

Why did Saguna Bhakti rise after Shankara?

His Nirguna Brahman (God without attributes) was too abstract for common people, prompting the idea of Saguna Brahman (God with attributes).

19 · Bhakti Movement

Ramanujacharya — birthplace, year, philosophy?

Born at Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu, in 1017 CE. Philosophy: Vishishtadvaita — qualified non-dualism; God is Saguna Brahman. Deeply influenced by the Alvars; considered an 'incarnation of Vishnu' in the south.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Madhvacharya — century, region, philosophy?

13th century, from the Kannada region. Philosophy: Dvaita — dualism; soul and the divine are separate. The world is reality, not illusion; God, soul and matter are distinct.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Nimbarkacharya — region and who was he contemporary with?

The Telangana region; a contemporary of Ramanujacharya, exponent of dualistic Vaishnavism.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Vallabhacharya — his path, and whose guru was he?

Pushti Marg and Bhakti Marg; the second great saint of the Krishna Bhakti branch after Chaitanya. Guru of Surdas.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Ramananda — birthplace and two firsts?

Born at Allahabad. First to propagate Bhakti in North India, and the first to use the local language / Hindi to spread his ideas. Initially a follower of Ramanuja.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Name five disciples of Ramananda and their professions.

Kabir · Raidas (cobbler) · Dhanna (Jat farmer) · Narharai (goldsmith) · Pipa (Rajput prince).

19 · Bhakti Movement

Kabir — school, century, upbringing, and contemporary Sultan?

Nirguna, 15th century; brought up by a Muslim couple who were weavers; contemporary of Sultan Sikandar Lodi. Most famous disciple of Ramananda.

19 · Bhakti Movement

What was Kabir's aim, and what did he reject?

To reunite Hindus and Muslims and create harmony. He rejected idol worship, ritual and caste.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Kabir's compilation — name and three parts?

Bijak, with three parts: Sakhi, Sabad, Ramani. He wrote in the dialect Sadhukkadi; his followers are Kabirpanthis.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Surdas — guru, tradition, contemporary emperor?

Disciple of Vallabhacharya, in the Pushtimarg tradition; contemporary of Akbar; blind. He popularised the Krishna cult in the north.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Surdas's three works, and the language of Sursagar?

Sursagar (in Braj Bhasha), Sahitya Lahari, Soorsaravali.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Tulsidas — his deity, work, and dialect?

A Saguna worshipper of Rama, contemporary of Akbar. Composed the Ramcharitmanas in the Awadhi dialect. Other works: Vinayapatrika, Kavitavali, Gitavali.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Mirabai — birth family, marriage, and her songs?

Daughter of the king of Merta and daughter-in-law of Rana Sanga of Mewar; 16th century. Famous in Rajasthan for her hymns; her devotional songs are the Padavali.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu — birthplace and philosophy?

Born in Nadia district, West Bengal. Philosophy: Achintya Bheda Abheda. He propagated Vaishnavism in Bengal and rejected caste rigidity through Gaudiya Vaishnavism; followers regard him as an incarnation of Krishna.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Shankardeva — region, epithet, and philosophy?

Assam (then Ahom), 15th–16th century — the 'Chaitanya of Assam.' Philosophy: Eka Sarana Nama Dharma — refuge in one supreme being (Krishna), rejecting ritual, caste and idol worship in favour of congregational chanting.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Shankardeva's four contributions?

Established Sattras (monasteries) · wrote plays called Ankiya Nat · wrote the Kirtan-Ghosha · developed Sattriya, one of India's eight classical dance forms.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Basavanna — movement, region, century, and patron king?

Led the Veerashaiva / Lingayat movement, begun in Karnataka in the mid-12th century. He was a minister at the court of the Kalachuri king Bijjala.

19 · Bhakti Movement

What are Vachanas, and who else led the Lingayat movement?

Prose-poetry through which Basavanna taught. Fellow sharanas: Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi. Devotion was to Shiva as Ishtalinga.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Annamacharya — century, epithet, and how many compositions?

15th century Telugu saint-composer, the 'Padakavita Pitamaha' (grandfather of song-writing). Composed about 32,000 sankirtanas in praise of Lord Venkateswara of Tirupati.

19 · Bhakti Movement

What structure did Annamacharya pioneer, and what social message did he carry?

Earliest known musician to use the Pallavi-Charanam structure. His songs were accessible to all and promoted social equality against caste distinction.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Lal Ded (Lalleshwari) — region, century, and what are her verses called?

Kashmir, 14th century mystic poet of Kashmir Shaivism. Her philosophical verses are called Vakhs ('speech') — foundational to modern Kashmiri language and literature.

19 · Bhakti Movement

Name the three great Varkari saints of Maharashtra and their deity.

Namdev (13th–14th c.), Dnyaneshwar, and Tukaram (17th c.) — devotion to Vithoba / Vitthal at Pandharpur.

20 · Sufism

Chishti vs Suhrawardi — royal patronage?

Chishti avoided the state and royal courts. Suhrawardi accepted royal patronage, amassed wealth and held government posts.

20 · Sufism

Chishti vs Suhrawardi — poverty and music?

Chishti believed in strict poverty and promoted sama (musical gatherings) to reach spiritual ecstasy. Suhrawardi did neither.

20 · Sufism

Chishti vs Suhrawardi — regions?

Chishti — Ajmer, Delhi and across north India. Suhrawardi — mainly Punjab and Multan.

20 · Sufism

Who founded the Chishti order in India, where is his dargah, and what is he called?

Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, 12th century; dargah at Ajmer, Rajasthan. Revered as Gharib Nawaz. He taught universal love, compassion for the poor and spiritual harmony.

20 · Sufism

Which Sultan first visited Moinuddin Chishti's tomb?

Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

20 · Sufism

Where is Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki's dargah, and what was built in his honour?

Delhi (Mehrauli). The Qutub Minar was begun in his honour.

20 · Sufism

Nizamuddin Auliya — where, whose guru, and who built his mausoleum?

Delhi. Guru of Amir Khusro; his mausoleum was built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He did not oppose ziyarat — tomb visitation is central to Sufi devotion.

20 · Sufism

Salim Chishti — where, and what did he foretell?

Fatehpur Sikri. He foretold the birth of Jahangir; Akbar built his tomb, and Jahangir redid it in marble.

20 · Sufism

Who was Gesu Daraz, and with which ruler is he linked?

A Sufi saint of Gulbarga, associated with the Bahmani ruler Firuz Shah Bahmani.

20 · Sufism

What does the Urs mark, and which calendar does it follow?

The saint's death anniversary (visal) — not his birth — following the Islamic lunar (Hijri) calendar. In Sufism the saint's death is a 'wedding', the soul's union with God, so it is joyous. At Ajmer it is held in the month of Rajab.

21 · Sikhism

Guru Nanak — birth year, birthplace, and its modern name?

1469, at Talwandi — now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan.

21 · Sikhism

Guru Nanak's core teaching?

Worship of one God (Ik Onkar), equality and honest labour; rejection of ritual, caste and idol worship. His birth is celebrated as Gurpurab on Kartik Purnima.

21 · Sikhism

Guru Angad Dev — original name, why renamed, and his contribution?

Originally Bhai Lehna; renamed Angad ('part of my own body') by Nanak. He developed the Gurmukhi script.

21 · Sikhism

Which Guru founded Amritsar?

Guru Ram Das, the fourth Guru.

21 · Sikhism

Guru Arjan Dev — what did he compile, when, and how did he die?

Compiled the hymns of the first four Gurus plus his own into the Adi Granth, 1604. Executed by Jahangir in 1606 for sheltering Prince Khusrau.

21 · Sikhism

Which Guru began the militarisation of the Panth?

Guru Hargobind, the sixth Guru (miri-piri).

21 · Sikhism

Guru Tegh Bahadur — which number Guru, and how did he die?

The ninth Guru. Executed at Chandni Chowk, Delhi, in 1675 on Aurangzeb's orders, for refusing to convert and defending the religious freedom of Kashmiri Pandits.

21 · Sikhism

Guru Gobind Singh — which number, and what did he declare about succession?

The tenth and last human Guru. He incorporated his father Tegh Bahadur's hymns into the scripture and declared the Guru Granth Sahib the eternal Guru, ending the human lineage.

21 · Sikhism

What belief did Guru Gobind Singh instil, and where and when did he die?

'Raj Karega Khalsa' — that the Khalsa's destiny was to rule. Died 1708 at Nanded (Hazur Sahib), Maharashtra — assassinated by a Pathan, Jamshed Khan, likely sent by Wazir Khan of Sirhind.

21 · Sikhism

Khalsa — founded by whom, on which day, in which year, and where?

By Guru Gobind Singh, on Baisakhi 1699, at Anandpur Sahib.

21 · Sikhism

What were the Panj Pyare and the Five Ks?

Panj Pyare — the 'five beloved ones', the first initiates. The Five Ks: Kesh, Kangha, Kara, Kachhera, Kirpan — mandated for all baptised Sikhs.

21 · Sikhism

What did the Khalsa transform the community into?

A disciplined, egalitarian, politically conscious military brotherhood.

21 · Sikhism

Why did the Sikh Panth militarise?

As a response to rising persecution and oppressive Mughal policies (under Jahangir and Aurangzeb) — not offensive expansion, not internal theology, not an anti-Maratha alliance.

21 · Sikhism

What does Baisakhi primarily celebrate in Punjab?

The founding of the Khalsa Panth — though it is also a harvest festival.

21 · Sikhism

Banda Singh Bahadur — what did he achieve and against whom?

After 1708 he led the Khalsa in revolt, rallied the peasantry, defeated the Mughal governor Wazir Khan at the Battle of Chappar Chiri, and established the first sovereign Sikh state in Punjab, striking coins in the Gurus' names.

21 · Sikhism

When, where and by whose order was Banda Bahadur executed?

Captured after the siege of Gurdas Nangal and executed in Delhi in 1716, on the orders of Farrukhsiyar.

21 · Sikhism

What was the Sarbat Khalsa, where and when did it meet?

The assembly of the Sikh community at Amritsar (Akal Takht), twice a year at Baisakhi and Diwali.

21 · Sikhism

What were Gurmatas?

The collective resolutions of the Sarbat Khalsa, binding on all Misls.

21 · Sikhism

Dal Khalsa — what, when, where, and under whom?

The combined army of the Sikh Jathas (bands) and Misls (confederacies), organised in 1748 at Amritsar under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. It repelled Abdali's invasions and paved the way for Sikh rule.

21 · Sikhism

Which two Gurus were executed by Mughal emperors, and by whom?

Guru Arjan Dev by Jahangir (1606) and Guru Tegh Bahadur by Aurangzeb (1675).

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Mir Jumla's Assam invasion — year, capital captured, and treaty?

1662. Aurangzeb's general Mir Jumla II captured the Ahom capital Garhgaon and forced king Sutamla (Jayadhwaj Singha) to sign the Treaty of Ghilajharighat. The occupation collapsed under monsoon, disease and Ahom counter-attacks.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Battle of Saraighat — year, river, and Mughal commander?

1671, on the Brahmaputra near Guwahati. Mughals led by Raja Ram Singh I (Kachhwaha), trying to recapture Guwahati.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Who led the Ahoms at Saraighat, and what was the result?

Lachit Barphukan — using naval tactics, guerrilla methods and terrain to win decisively with a smaller army. Mughal expansion into the North-East was permanently halted.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Gond administrative units — Garh, Chaurasi, Barhot?

Territory divided into Garh; each Garh into Chaurasi (84 villages); each Chaurasi into Barhots (12 villages).

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Who was Rani Durgavati, whom did she marry, and how did she die?

A Chandela princess of Mahoba who married the Gond king Dalpat Shah. After his early death she ruled as regent for her minor son Vir Narayan. In 1565 Mughal forces under Asaf Khan invaded Garha Katanga; she fought valiantly and chose death over surrender.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Who was Chhatrasal, and what advice did Shivaji give him?

The Bundela ruler. His father Champat Rai was killed by the Mughals when he was 12. Shivaji told him 'go back to your own land and fight for the freedom of your people,' taught him guerrilla warfare and gifted him a sword.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

How did Chhatrasal begin his revolt, and what did Aurangzeb offer him?

With 5 horsemen and 25 swordsmen. In 1705 Aurangzeb offered him a mansab of 4,000 for peace.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

When did Tipu Sultan become ruler of Mysore, and after whose death?

1782, after the death of his father Hyder Ali during the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Tipu Sultan's capital, and what stands there?

Seringapatam (Srirangapatna), an island fortress on the Kaveri. It houses his summer palace Dariya Daulat Bagh and his mausoleum, the Gumbaz.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

What was Tipu Sultan's foreign alliance, and what club did he join?

Close ties with the French — employing French experts to modernise his army and manufacture arms. He joined the Jacobin Club, planting a 'Tree of Liberty' at Seringapatam.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Tipu Sultan's military innovation, and when did he die?

The iron-cased Mysore rockets. He died in 1799 at the Battle of Seringapatam.

22 · Regional & Tribal Powers

Which temple is keyed as the 'Taj Mahal of the South' when the options are temples?

The Meenakshi Temple, Madurai — Dravidian, expanded by the Nayakas, famous for its colourful gopurams. (Historically the title belongs to the Ibrahim Rauza at Bijapur.)

23 · Rapid Fire — Firsts, Books, Titles

First Muslim invasion of India?

Muhammad bin Qasim, 712, Sindh.

23 · Rapid Fire — Firsts, Books, Titles

First Turkish invader of India?

Mahmud of Ghazni.

23 · Rapid Fire — Firsts, Books, Titles

First Sultan of Delhi?

Qutbuddin Aibak.

23 · Rapid Fire — Firsts, Books, Titles

First to issue pure Arabic coins, the Tanka and the Jital?

Iltutmish.

23 · Rapid Fire — Firsts, Books, Titles

First to institutionalise the Iqta system?

Iltutmish.

23 · Rapid Fire — Firsts, Books, Titles

First Delhi Sultan to receive the Caliph's investiture?

Iltutmish — Sultan-e-Azam, 1229.

23 · Rapid Fire — Firsts, Books, Titles

First and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate?

Razia Sultan.

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First to introduce Sijda, Paibos and Nowruz?

Balban.

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First to order the measurement of land?

Alauddin Khalji — Masahat.

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First to pay soldiers in cash and keep a standing army?

Alauddin Khalji.

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First Muslim ruler whose empire reached India's southern tip?

Alauddin Khalji.

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First to issue token currency?

Muhammad bin Tughlaq, 1329.

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First to impose an irrigation tax (Haq-i-Sharb)?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

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First to impose jizya on Brahmins?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

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First to translate Hindu texts into Persian?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

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First Afghan dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate?

Lodi.

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First to introduce the Charbagh garden in India?

Babur.

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First Mughal emperor buried outside India?

Babur — at Kabul.

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First monumental charbagh garden-tomb and double dome in India?

Humayun's Tomb.

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First use of pietra dura in India?

Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah, built by Nur Jahan.

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First Englishman to reach India?

Ralph Fitch, 1585, at Akbar's court.

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First evidence of jauhar?

Ranthambore, 1301. Amir Khusro first mentioned jauhar in Persian, in Khazain-ul-Futuh.

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Who introduced the true arch and dome to India?

The Delhi Sultanate.

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First independent Islamic kingdom in South India?

The Bahmani kingdom, 1347.

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Battle of Tarain I and II — years and winners?

1191 — Prithviraj won. 1192 — Ghori won.

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First Battle of Panipat — year and significance?

1526 — Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi; Mughal Empire founded, Delhi Sultanate ended.

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Second Battle of Panipat — year and parties?

1556 — Akbar (via Bairam Khan) defeated Hemu.

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Third Battle of Panipat — year and parties?

1761 — Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau.

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Battle of Talikota — year and significance?

1565 — the Deccan Sultanates crushed Vijayanagara; the empire collapsed.

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Battle of Haldighati — year, parties, result?

1576 — Akbar's army under Man Singh vs Maharana Pratap; indecisive, Pratap escaped.

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Battle of Samugarh and Battle of Deorai — years and parties?

Samugarh 1658 and Deorai 1659 — Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh.

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Battle of Saraighat — year, parties, result?

1671 — Ahoms under Lachit Barphukan defeated the Mughals under Ram Singh I.

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Battle of Chausa and Battle of Kannauj — years and result?

1539 and 1540 — Sher Shah defeated Humayun; Humayun exiled 15 years.

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Battle of Palkhed and Battle of Khed — years and parties?

Palkhed 1728 — Baji Rao I beat Nizam-ul-Mulk. Khed 1707 — Shahu beat Tarabai.

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Battle of Karnal — year and parties?

1739 — Nadir Shah defeated Muhammad Shah.

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Battle of Takkolam — year and parties?

949 — Rashtrakuta Krishna III defeated Chola Parantaka I.

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Battle of Raichur — year and parties?

1520 — Krishnadevaraya defeated Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur.

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Who wrote Kitab-ul-Hind and Rihla, and in which language?

Al-Biruni and Ibn Battuta — both in Arabic.

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Who wrote the Akbarnama, and in which language?

Abul Fazl, in Persian. Volume 3 is the Ain-i-Akbari.

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Who wrote the Baburnama, Humayun-Nama and Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri?

Babur (Turkish) · Gulbadan Begum · Jahangir (Persian).

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Who wrote the Padshahnama and the Fatawa-i-Alamgiri?

Abdul Hamid Lahori; and the Fatawa-i-Alamgiri was commissioned by Aurangzeb.

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Who wrote the Padmavat and the Gita Govinda?

Malik Muhammad Jayasi and Jayadeva.

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Who wrote Amuktamalyada and Panduranga Mahatyam?

Krishnadevaraya (Telugu) and Tenali Ramakrishna.

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Titles: Lakh Baksh, Slave of Slaves, Zil-i-Ilahi?

Qutbuddin Aibak · Iltutmish · Balban.

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Titles: Sikandar-i-Sani, Hazar Dinari, Tuti-e-Hind?

Alauddin Khalji · Malik Kafur · Amir Khusro.

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Who was the 'wisest fool', and who the 'Akbar of the Sultanate era'?

Muhammad bin Tughlaq; and Firoz Shah Tughlaq (per Elphinstone).

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Titles: Qalandar, Ghazi, Alamgir, Zinda Pir?

Babur after Panipat; Babur after Khanwa; Aurangzeb ×2.

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Titles: Andhra Bhoja, Gharib Nawaz, Senakarte?

Krishnadevaraya · Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti · Balaji Vishwanath.

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Titles: Gangaikonda, Mummudi Chola, Adivaraha?

Rajendra Chola I · Rajaraja I · Mihira Bhoja.

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Systems: Iqta, Mansabdari, Nayankara — which empire each?

Iqta — Delhi Sultanate · Mansabdari — Mughals (Akbar, 1571) · Nayankara — Vijayanagara.

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Systems: Zabt, Nasaq, Patta & Qabuliyat, Ijaradari?

Zabt/Dahsala — Akbar & Todar Mal, 1580 · Nasaq — estimation, used in Bengal & Gujarat · Patta & Qabuliyat — Sher Shah · Ijaradari — Jahandar Shah.

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Terms: Dagh, Chehra, Masahat — whose and what?

All Alauddin Khalji's: Dagh — horse branding · Chehra — soldier's descriptive roll · Masahat — land measurement.

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Terms: Uluq, Dawa, Ganimi Kava, Tulughma?

Uluq — horse post (MBT) · Dawa — foot post (MBT) · Ganimi Kava — Shivaji's guerrilla warfare · Tulughma — Babur's encircling formation.

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Chauth, Sardeshmukhi, Khums, Haq-i-Sharb — rates and whose?

Chauth 25% (Marathas) · Sardeshmukhi extra 10% (Marathas) · Khums 1/5 of war booty (Sultanate) · Haq-i-Sharb irrigation tax (Firoz Shah Tughlaq).